Rolston

Question 1

Axiology

Answer 1

theory of value. What kinds of things are valuable? why are they valuable?

Question 2

Naturalism

Answer 2

• axiological naturalism

- metaphysical naturalism

Question 3

axiological naturalism

Answer 3

all values are related to facts about the natural world, in particular facts about evolution

Question 4

metaphysical naturalism

Answer 4

the claim that humans are not separate from non-human nature

Question 5

2 goals of rolston

Answer 5

1. all living organisms have intrinsic value

2. all species kinds have intrinsic value

Question 6

naturalism

Answer 6

values are dependent on facts about nature (especially biological facts)

Question 7

Rolston’s naturalistic objective value

Answer 7

• X has objective value if it has value independent of any value assigned to it by any other Y.
• X can have objective value independently of consciousness

Question 8

2 senses of intrinsic value (1)

Answer 8

X is intrinsically valuable if Y conscoulsly values it for its own sake and not simply as a means for other values to which it might lead
- Fred values Beatles songs for their own sake

Question 9

2 senses of intrinsic value (2)

Answer 9

X is intrinsically valuable if X has value independent of conscious valuation by any other Y and independently of its instrumental value (this is Rolston’s claim about nature)
- the redwood tree species has value separate from any conscious valuing by others

Question 10

some interesting biological observations

Answer 10

1. wings: “smart systems”
2. stomata: beneath leaves, regulate airflow
3. transposons: gene segments that alter DNA (131)
4. acquired immune systems: memories
5. “in the objective facts… is there anything of value?” (133)

Question 11

anthropocentric value

Answer 11

humans are the only entites with intrinsic value

Question 12

anthropogenic value

Answer 12

all values originate from human consciousness

Question 13

dispositional anthropogenic value

Answer 13

to say that N is valuable means that N is able to be valued (by human valuers)

Question 14

Epistemological argument (133)

Answer 14

1. humans can only know about values through experiences of valuing things
2. humans cannot know about values in nature separate from themselves
3. the only values in nature that humans can know come from human valuations of nature
4. therefore, nature has value only relationally - related to human valuation

Question 15

Rolston’s criticism

Answer 15

1. dualism of humans and nature not plausible in metaphysics, so too in value theory
2. practical worry
3. challenge

Question 16

practical worry

Answer 16

likely to stay focused on humans if we think humans are the source of all values (135)

Question 17

challenge

Answer 17

to make sense of how we do know that value exists in nature, separate from human experiences and valuations

Question 18

sentiocentric value (Singer)

Answer 18

all sentient beings (or their experiences) have i ntrinsic value)

Question 19

Sentiogenic/vertebragenic value (Singer)

Answer 19

sentient beings are the source of all values

Question 20

Dispositional

Answer 20

to say that N is valuable means that N is able to be valued by some sentient being

Question 21

Sentient Valuers: Arguments

Answer 21

• wild animals defend their own lives or the lives of other animals, so it makes sense these lives have intrinsic value (135)
• animals are the source of values, because they have a developed consciousness that feels pain and pleasure

Question 22

Argument in favor of sentiogenic approaches

Answer 22

1. all we can know about values is based on our own experiences
2. naturalism says that these values come from naturally evolved capacities
3. therefore, other vertebrates who share these capacities probably create values

Question 23

summarizing the sentiogenic view

Answer 23

“Value, like a trickle or remorse, must be felt to be there. Its esse is percipi. Nonsensed value is nonsense” (136)

Question 24

Rolston challenges the thory that says…

Answer 24

values are like color (relative to the perceiver) (137)

Question 25

Consider photosynthesis

Answer 25

it is real independently of observers (p. 137)

Question 26

Plants as self-actualizing: not regulated by neural control but modular organisms (137)

Answer 26

repair, move, make, regulate, emit, reject

Question 27

Plants

Answer 27

1. spontaneous, self-maintaining system
2. reproduces itself
3. executes its program, which is genetic information
4. 137

Question 28

Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (1)

Answer 28

if a thing uses resources instrumentally to defend and promote its own life, then it values its own life intrinsically

Question 29

Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (2)

Answer 29

If a life is valued intrinsically, then it has value separate from any other good to which it might contribute.

Question 30

Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (3)

Answer 30

Living organisms (even plants) use resources instrumentally to defend and promote their lives.

Question 31

Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (4)

Answer 31

the lives of living organisms are intrinsically valuable

Question 32

Genetic Strategy argument (1)

Answer 32

If a thing uses strategies to solve problems in order to benefit its own good, then that thing values itself intrinsically.

Question 33

Genetic Strategy argument (2)

Answer 33

Species kinds (genomes) contain genetic information that is used for problem solving strategies that defend and promote the species’ own good (see 138-140). (Smart genes).

Question 34

Genetic Strategy argument (3)

Answer 34

Species kinds value themselves intrinsically.

Question 35

Genetic Strategy argument (4)

Answer 35

So, species kinds have intrinsic value.

Question 36

Two basic conclusions

Answer 36

1. all living organisms have intrinsic value

2. all species kinds have intrinsic value

Question 37

Objection

Answer 37

just because something has a good of its own kind, it does not follow that it is a good kind to which we have moral obligations? (141)

Question 38

Naturalistic Fallacy

Answer 38

• from a factual statement alone, no moral judgement about obligation or prescription can be derived
• from the fact that “Fred has poor eyesight” it does not follow that it is morally obligatory to make sure he does not improve it

Question 39

Burden of proof

Answer 39

the burden of proof is on the human to show why any natural kind is a bad kind (141)

Question 40

Subjectivist fallacy

Answer 40

1. thinking that all value lies in subjective experience (117)
2. projecting human value onto nature when we say it has a good of its own kind