Rolston Flashcards
Axiology
theory of value. What kinds of things are valuable? why are they valuable?
Naturalism
- axiological naturalism
- metaphysical naturalism
axiological naturalism
all values are related to facts about the natural world, in particular facts about evolution
metaphysical naturalism
the claim that humans are not separate from non-human nature
2 goals of rolston
- all living organisms have intrinsic value
2. all species kinds have intrinsic value
naturalism
values are dependent on facts about nature (especially biological facts)
Rolston’s naturalistic objective value
- X has objective value if it has value independent of any value assigned to it by any other Y.
- X can have objective value independently of consciousness
2 senses of intrinsic value (1)
X is intrinsically valuable if Y conscoulsly values it for its own sake and not simply as a means for other values to which it might lead
- Fred values Beatles songs for their own sake
2 senses of intrinsic value (2)
X is intrinsically valuable if X has value independent of conscious valuation by any other Y and independently of its instrumental value (this is Rolston’s claim about nature)
- the redwood tree species has value separate from any conscious valuing by others
some interesting biological observations
- wings: “smart systems”
- stomata: beneath leaves, regulate airflow
- transposons: gene segments that alter DNA (131)
- acquired immune systems: memories
- “in the objective facts… is there anything of value?” (133)
anthropocentric value
humans are the only entites with intrinsic value
anthropogenic value
all values originate from human consciousness
dispositional anthropogenic value
to say that N is valuable means that N is able to be valued (by human valuers)
Epistemological argument (133)
- humans can only know about values through experiences of valuing things
- humans cannot know about values in nature separate from themselves
- the only values in nature that humans can know come from human valuations of nature
- therefore, nature has value only relationally - related to human valuation
Rolston’s criticism
- dualism of humans and nature not plausible in metaphysics, so too in value theory
- practical worry
- challenge
practical worry
likely to stay focused on humans if we think humans are the source of all values (135)
challenge
to make sense of how we do know that value exists in nature, separate from human experiences and valuations
sentiocentric value (Singer)
all sentient beings (or their experiences) have i ntrinsic value)
Sentiogenic/vertebragenic value (Singer)
sentient beings are the source of all values
Dispositional
to say that N is valuable means that N is able to be valued by some sentient being
Sentient Valuers: Arguments
- wild animals defend their own lives or the lives of other animals, so it makes sense these lives have intrinsic value (135)
- animals are the source of values, because they have a developed consciousness that feels pain and pleasure
Argument in favor of sentiogenic approaches
- all we can know about values is based on our own experiences
- naturalism says that these values come from naturally evolved capacities
- therefore, other vertebrates who share these capacities probably create values
summarizing the sentiogenic view
“Value, like a trickle or remorse, must be felt to be there. Its esse is percipi. Nonsensed value is nonsense” (136)
Rolston challenges the thory that says…
values are like color (relative to the perceiver) (137)
Consider photosynthesis
it is real independently of observers (p. 137)
Plants as self-actualizing: not regulated by neural control but modular organisms (137)
repair, move, make, regulate, emit, reject
Plants
- spontaneous, self-maintaining system
- reproduces itself
- executes its program, which is genetic information
- 137
Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (1)
if a thing uses resources instrumentally to defend and promote its own life, then it values its own life intrinsically
Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (2)
If a life is valued intrinsically, then it has value separate from any other good to which it might contribute.
Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (3)
Living organisms (even plants) use resources instrumentally to defend and promote their lives.
Reconstructing the Argument on pages 137 and 138 (4)
the lives of living organisms are intrinsically valuable
Genetic Strategy argument (1)
If a thing uses strategies to solve problems in order to benefit its own good, then that thing values itself intrinsically.
Genetic Strategy argument (2)
Species kinds (genomes) contain genetic information that is used for problem solving strategies that defend and promote the species’ own good (see 138-140). (Smart genes).
Genetic Strategy argument (3)
Species kinds value themselves intrinsically.
Genetic Strategy argument (4)
So, species kinds have intrinsic value.
Two basic conclusions
- all living organisms have intrinsic value
2. all species kinds have intrinsic value
Objection
just because something has a good of its own kind, it does not follow that it is a good kind to which we have moral obligations? (141)
Naturalistic Fallacy
- from a factual statement alone, no moral judgement about obligation or prescription can be derived
- from the fact that “Fred has poor eyesight” it does not follow that it is morally obligatory to make sure he does not improve it
Burden of proof
the burden of proof is on the human to show why any natural kind is a bad kind (141)
Subjectivist fallacy
- thinking that all value lies in subjective experience (117)
- projecting human value onto nature when we say it has a good of its own kind
