Role of Individuals and Attitudes to Empire (SECTION 4)

Question 1

Who was Onn bin Ja’afar?
Who were his supporters?
Who were his opponents?

Answer 1

1) Founder of the United Malays National Organisation, which campaigned to rally the Malays against the Malayan union.
2) Became the UMNO’s president in May 1946.
3) One of his supporters was Rahman.
4) Chin Peng and Tan Cheng Lock.

Question 2

Who was Kwame Nkrumah?
What was his background?
Where did he study? What was the impact of this?
How did be grow his popularity?
When was he PM of Ghana?

Answer 2

1) From the Gold Coast, educated in a Catholic mission school and a government teacher training college, he was the direct product of colonial institutions.
2) Studied in Accra, meant that he was exposed to radical western ideas, and he continued studying at various US universities. He became involved in radical black activism.
3) Formed a new political group, the People’s Convention Party.
4) PM between 1953-57, during which he moved the Gold Coast towards full independence as Ghana in 1957.

Question 3

What did Kwame Nkrumah’s political philosophy consist of?

Answer 3

1) Pan-Africanism: the belief that African peoples should work together politically for their collective common good.
2) Marxist socialism: a belief in the redistribution of wealth to give the poor control over their destinies. Argued that the Empire served the interest of international capitalists, who were responsible for the poverty, inequality and oppression throughout Africa, and that British rule was exploitative.
3) Popular nationalism: Nkrumah associated himself with the demands for change emerging from below.
4) Responsible leadership: he understood the importance of developing a working relationship with the British to gain their confidence and support.

Question 4

Who was Dr Nmadi Azikiwe of Nigeria?
What was his background?
What did he help to create?

Answer 4

1) Ndami Azikiwe received a western education in Nigeria followed by further study in the USA, where he was exposed to racial ideas. Developed a strong sense of African nationalism.
2) Helped to create the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons. Became its leader in 1944.

Question 5

What were the troubles faced by Azikiwe in Nigeria? What did this mean?

Answer 5

1) Nigeria starkly divided on religious and ethnic grounds. The north was largely muslim and contained half the population. Several different nationalist groups emerged.

Question 6

What did the creation of an independent Nigeria as one nation mean for Azikiwe?

Answer 6

1) Meant that he had to be able to work with both his nationalist rivals and the British to create a viable and stable Nigerian state

Question 7

What were some of Azikiwe’s strenghts?

Answer 7

1) His ability to compromise and to win the trust of a variety of committed nationalists from the various nationalist communities, as well as the British was crucial in facilitating Nigerian independence.
2) He was able to persuade the British that it was possible for the various regional ethnic groups to work successfully within a federal system.

Question 8

Who was Jomo Kenyetta?
What was his background?
Who did he join?
When did he visit London? What did this lead to?
When did he return to Kenya?
What did the emergence of the Mau Mau movement mean for Kenyetta?

Answer 8

1) Member of the Kikuyu from British East Africa. Educated in a Scottish missionary school, and worked for white settlers.
2) Joined the Kikuyu Central Association.
3) Visited London in 1929. Turned into a 17 year stay. In England, he developed his education, authored books and grew determined to fight for the independence of his country.
4) Returned to Kenya in 1946 and became the president of the Kenya Africa Union in 1947.
5) The Mau Mau movement meant that the Kenya Africa Union was banned. It meant that he was arrested in October 1952 and was sentenced to 7 years in prison

Question 9

When was Kenyetta released from prison and what did he do as soon as he was released?

Answer 9

1) As soon as the State of Emergency was lifted in 1960, Kenyetta was released in 1961 and immediately began negotiations with the British which led to Kenya gaining independence in December 1963.

Question 10

Who was Apolo Obote?
What was his background?
Who did he join upon his return to Uganda?

Answer 10

1) Educated at a protestant missionary schools and Makaere University.
2) He went to Kenya as a construction workers in the 1950s, and developed anti-colonial and socialist views. Returning to Uganda in 1956, be joined the Uganda National Congress

Question 11

How did Obete rule?

Answer 11

1) Ruled in an arbitrary way, with his power maintained by the Ugandan military. Declared himself President in 1966.
2) His power was cemented in 1967 when parliament agreed a new constitution which abolished the federal structure established on independence.

Question 12

Who was Nelson Mandela?
What were his aims?
What was his background?
Who was he influenced by?
What was he arrested for?
Why were further charges brought against him?
What happened to Mandela after further charges were brought against him?

Answer 12

1) Was determined to achieve equal rights for black people and end the apartheid regime established in South Africa in 1948.
2) He came from the Xhosa peoples, educated by Methodist missionaries. Became involved in anti-colonial politics whilst studying law at Fort Hare and Witwatersrand universities
3) Influenced by Marxism and secretly joined the South African Communist Party and sat on its central committee.
4) Arrested in July 1962, and charged for leaving the country without a permit, convicted and sentenced to 5 years in jail.
5) But, while in prison, further charges were brought after a police raid on the African National Congress’ Rivionia hideout. In October 1963 were prosecuted in the Riviona Trial.
6) In June 1964, Mandela and 7 others were sentenced to life in prison on Robben island. Mandela served 27 years but he was eventually to emerge in 1990 after an international campaign in his support, to be hailed as a great moral champion and inspirational leader. He came president of SA from 1994-99.

Question 13

Who was Andrew Cohen?
Background?
What were his beliefs?
What were his political posts?

Answer 13

1) Degree in classic from Cambridge, entered the Civil Service and almost immediately transferred to the Colonial Office where he concentrated on African affairs.
2) - He was a realist who knew that decolonisation was inevitable.
- His Jewish background meant that he was deeply affected by the Holocaust and he raised concerns over black africans living in the apartheid system.
- Believed in listening to nationalist leaders.
- Believed in devolving powers to indigenous elites.
- Concerned about the extreme white supremacy inherent in the apartheid system.
- Proposed the Central African Federation.
3) Appointed Governor of Uganda in 1952-57. He brought Ugandan’s to government and encouraged the development of political parties as well as expanding the University of Makerere.

Question 14

Who was John Macpherson?
Background?
Political posts?

Answer 14

1) Educated at Edinburgh university. Served in the Malayan Civil Service.
2) Became the Governor General of Nigeria in 1948-55. Moved colonial administration gradually towards reform, organised a major conference in 1951 to open discussions on a constitution which would include participation in government by Nigerian officials from the different regions.

Question 15

Who was Charles Arden Clarke?
Background?
Political posts?

Answer 15

1) Born in India, educated a public school and entered the colonial service in 1920.
2) Became Governor of the Gold Coast in 1949. Saw his role as a facilitator of self-rule to independence. Played an important part in the release of Nkrumah from prison.

Question 16

In what ways was Britain proud of its political legacy in its former colonies?

Answer 16

1) Proud of creating ‘nation states’ with their representative institutions and practices.
2) Parliaments, ministries, wigged judges and British style legal systems were legacies of empire.

Question 17

In what ways did the British maintain political influence in its former colonies?

Answer 17

1) Establishment of a Commonwealth Secretary General and his Secretariat in 1965 permitted the coordination of many Commonwealth activities.

Question 18

How did commonwealth help maintain political ties with colonies?

Answer 18

1) Emphasis on shared political tradition helped maintain ties.
2) Regular commonwealth conferences took place at least every 2 years in London (apart from 1 in Lagos in 1966).

Question 19

How did post-colonial ties enable Britain to maintain a significant international position?

Answer 19

1) The Commonwealth provided a strong and wide ranging diplomatic network ensuring Britain’s membership of key international bodies.
2) Britain’s place on the UN Security Council can be seen as a reflection of Britain’s status acquired through empire and maintained British international influence.

Question 20

In what ways did the Commonwealth continue to strengthen British military power?

Answer 20

1) ‘global reach’ and recruited citizens from commonwealth nations who all remained eligible to serve in the British armed forces.

Question 21

Where did Britain continue to maintain military bases post-independence?

Answer 21

1) Malta, Cyprus, Hong Kong, Singapore.

Question 22

How far did National Service (1939-60) help maintain strong ties with empire/commonwealth?

Answer 22

1) Only groups likely to encounter the empire and commonwealth first hand were men required to do national service and become involved in one of the late colonial wars eg: kenya, malaya and seuz.

Question 23

How was the commonwealth financially linked to Britain?

Answer 23

1) Major commonwealth economic conference in 1952.
2) London remained one of the worlds financial centres.
3) Government made every effort to keep ex colonies within the sterling area.

Question 24

How significant was trade with commonwealth to Britain?

Answer 24

1) Conventions of international trade and law and Britain’s imperial connections had given rise to multi national companies with branches around the world.
2) Had important trading links that continued to be of major importance, particularly given Britain’s exclusion from the EEC until 1973

Question 25

Why did British people migrate to Commonwealth countries post-war?

Answer 25

1) Experience of war, continued rationing and increasing demand for labour in countries such as Australia, Canada and NZ which offered better prospects.
2) Almost 90,000 emigrated to Aus and 65,000 emigrated to Canada.

Question 26

Why was migration from Britain significant in maintaining post-colonial ties?

Answer 26

1) Intensified range and depth of personal contacts between ordinary British people and white dominions.
2) Around 25% of the population were in contact with relatives in the Dominions in 1948.

Question 27

Why were most people migrating to Britain from the Commonwealth by 1967?

Answer 27

1) Late 1950s, improved living standards and full employment within Britain helped curb the flood of people to Dominions, and looked to other sources of skilled labour.

Question 28

What roles did the Monarchy play in the continuation of close relations with Britain’s former colonies?

Answer 28

1) Queen remained symbol of commonwealth.
2) She personally reinforced the connections through regular Commonwealth visits.
3) She also held her own regular meetings with Heads of Government from Commonwealth countries.
4) Many people in Commonwealth nations listened to the Queen’s annual Christmas Day message.

Question 29

In what other ways did Britain remain culturally connected with its former colonies?

Answer 29

1) Citizens of the Commonwealth remained eligible for British honours.
2) Empire day abolished in 1962.
3) Union Jack was retained in the corners of many flags.
4) Anglican church had more members in Africa than in Britain.
5) Sport such as cricket and rugby spread across the Empire.
6) People from the Empire were still eligible to receive Imperial Royal Honours.

Question 30

What was migration to Britain from empire like before 1947?

Answer 30

1) Relatively small numbers of colonial immigrants settling in Britain since the late 19th century.
2) Large numbers of Indian soldiers had been billeted in Britain during WW1 but their stay was temporary.
3) Relatively little direct exposure to Empire for most Britons

Question 31

What was the British Nationality Act? When was it signed?

Answer 31

1) Signed in 1948.
2) In recognition of the Empire’s contribution to the war.
3) It gave the full British citizenship, including the right of free entry into Britain, to every inhabitant of the Empire/Commonwealth

Question 32

What was Empire windrush?

Answer 32

1) Steamship carrying 492 Jamaican passengers which arrived in 1948.
2) Arrived without prior notification and the authorities were hastily forced to house the immigrants in a temporary shelter at Clapham.
3) They were the first post-war immigrants to attract media interest.

Question 33

Why were there recruitment drives in the 1950s to encourage people to migrate to Britain?

Answer 33

1) As the economy recovered from the war, there was plentiful and well paid unskilled work in the factories.
2) Government actively encouraged immigration.
3) There were successful recruitment drives to encourage unskilled workers to take up work in public transport and the NHS.
4) 1956, London Transport took on nearly 4000 new employees, mostly from Barbados.
5) Since there were plenty of jobs available, no action was taken to limit immigration.
6) However, no action was taken to help migrants settle to find decent accomodation

Question 34

What were numbers of migrants from the commonwealth like by 1958?

Answer 34

1) 115,000 West Indians
2) 55,000 Indians and Pakistanis
3) 25,000 West Africans
4) Nearly half lived in London.

Question 35

Why did racial tensions increase in the 1950s?

Answer 35

1) Initial British reaction to increased exposure to other races was curiosity mixed with uncertainty.
2) Indifference was more common than intolerance in the very early 1950s.
3) However, as the post-war bloom slackened, prejudice and anxieties grew.
4) There were worries about the dilution of British cultural and national identity which were coupled with a concern to protect houses and jobs.

Question 36

What inequalities did immigrants face?

Answer 36

1) Bore the brunt of job redundancies.
2) Had the poorest housing in the least desirable parts of towns.

Question 37

How did the British public react to the arrival of migrants from the Empire?

Answer 37

1) 1958 - ‘Teddy Boy’ youths attacking black people, and violent riots broke out in Nottingham and Notting Hill (London).
2) Oswald Mosley’s anti immigration Union Movement.
3) Often the British turned their backs on the immigrant communities or actively campaigned against them.
4) Racist attitudes strongest amongst working-class communities that found themselves living in, or near, predominantly immigrant communities.
5) In the east end of London, the Bengalis were subjected to campaigns of violence which rendered certain streets ‘no go’ areas, especially at night.

Question 38

What efforts were made to improve community relations and the experience of immigrants?

Answer 38

1) Steel band music, performed by immigrant Trinidadians became popular in local pubs.
2) In 1964, a local festival, set up by West Indian immigrants, provided the first Notting Hill Carnival which enabled some assimilation and interchange of culture.

Question 39

What was the Commonwealth immigrants Act? When was it signed? How was it received by the public?

Answer 39

1) Signed in 1962.
2) - An attempt to control escalating immigration.
- Free migration for former colonial subjects was ended, even when they had a British passport.
- Divided would be immigrants into 3 groups: those with employment in the UK already arranged, those with skills or qualifications that were in short supply in the UK.
- A work permit scheme was put in place, which although didn’t explicitly discriminate against black or Asian workers, it had the same effect.
3) Act was unfair and difficult to operate, but it received massive public support, with opinion polls suggesting 70% support.
4) The Act had the effect of encouraging immigrants to put down roots in Britain and bring their families over (which was still possible).

Question 40

What topics featured strongly in the 1964 general election? What involvement did Peter Griffiths have?

Answer 40

1) Immigration issues featured strongly.
2) Peter Griffiths (Tory) won his seat by using the slogan “if you want a ni***r for a neighbour, vote Labour”.
3) Harold Wilson, the new Labour PM described the campaign as ‘a disgrace to British democracy’.

Question 41

What was the race relations board?
When was it created and for what purpose?

Answer 41

1) Some attempt was made to reduce tensions with the passing of the 1965 Race Relations Act, which forbade discrimination in public places ‘on the grounds of colour, race or ethnic or national origins’.
2) Discrimination in housing and employment were excluded and incitement to race hatred was not made a criminal offence.
3) Complaints could be made to a Race Relations Board which could conciliate between the 2 sides.
4) Set up to consider all aspects of race relations, compiling studies and produced reports and held ‘hearings’

Question 42

Why was it difficult for migrants from India and Pakistan to settle in Britain?

Answer 42

1) West Indians who were English speaking and shared the predominant Christians religions background of the native British were generally more easily assimilated.
2) A survey in Nottingham in the early 1960s found that almost 90% of the Jamaicans who came to Britain felt ‘British’ before they came to England.
3) Indians and Pakistanis, who were often very hard working and whose children wee high achievers in school were nevertheless regarded as more alien.
4) Some cultural traditions did not easily fit in a country which pre-war had almost exclusively been Christian.
5) Eg: Islamic interdict on the consumption of alcohol kept Muslims out of the public house and yet this was very often the centre of white British working class culture.

Question 43

How did television shape culture and public attitudes in Britain 1947-67?

Answer 43

1) TV’s became more prominent at home, new widespread medium for sharing imperial ideas.
2) Till Death Do Us Part:
- satire racism.
- shows attitudes of racial superiority and stereotyping.
3) The Last Night of the Proms:
- not explicitly about empire but shows the ongoings of it.

Question 44

How did film shape culture and public attitudes in Britain 1947-67?

Answer 44

1) Continued to be a great pass time for people. Many films released to Empire and imperial themes:
- Zulu 1964
- Khartoum 1966.
2) Gave the same interpretation of the events that present in Victorian times: heroes, white saviours, noble savages, ‘crazy, evil black’ people.
3) Nostalgia for empire because most were released after the majority of empire had already gone.
4) Positively portrayed the empire.

Question 45

How did festivals/celebrations shape culture and public attitudes in Britain 1947-67?

Answer 45

1) End of Empire Day in 1962 - renamed Commonwealth Day but not longer a national holiday.
2) Continuation of colonial exhibitions, many held in Glasgow in the 1950s.
3) 1954- Queen Elizabeth II coronation, didn’t have much empire theme.
4) 1951- Festival of Britain:
- meant to be modern interpretation of what Britain would be post war.
- introspective, didn’t look at Britain’s role in the world but was about what was happening in Britain.
- suggests Britain wanted to be seen as less of an imperial power even in the early 1950s.

Question 46

How did literature shape culture and public attitudes in Britain 1947-67?

Answer 46

1) Imperial novels of the past became classics eg: The jungle book.
2) Literature became more liberal.

Question 47

How did education shape culture and public attitudes in Britain 1947-67?

Answer 47

1) Still focused on Britain’s imperial past.
2) Textbooks gave a positive opinion about the empire.
3) History showed the importance of the empire.

Question 48

What were Youth Sub-Cultures like post war?

Answer 48

1) 1950s Teddy Boys:
- rock and roll
- right wing views
- notting hill race riots 1958
- involved with ‘paki bashing’.
2) 1960s mods:
- listened to American soul music.

Question 49

What were childrens magazines like post WW2 in Britain?

Answer 49

1) Magazines changed and focused on other things, but sometimes still had racist themes.
2) WW2 literature was more popular.

Question 50

What was travel like in Britain post WW2?

Answer 50

1) More exposure to other parts of the world.
2) Introduction of the package holidays.
3) People went to areas other than empire: eg: Spain.

Question 51

What was migration to and from Britain like post WW2?

Answer 51

1) Migration to the Commonwealth:
- mainly to white areas
- more familial ties to the empire
- more people exposed to the commonwealth
2) Migration to Britain:
- more profound effect on Britain than people leaving
- brought out a sense of racial superiority in Britain, views came to the surface.
- it couldn’t be ignored because it was a very real aspect of people’s lives now.