Risk factors

Question 1

Biological Theories

Answer 1

Historical theories
- Physiological characteristics
o Somotypes (Sheldon, 1971)

Modern theories
o Biological disposition to crime – interactive effect
 Genes
 Twin studies / adoption studies

Question 2

Psychological Theories

Answer 2

Eysencks criminal personality (1964, 1976)
Moffitt (1993) Life course theory

Question 3

Eysencks criminal personality (1964, 1976)

Answer 3

• Socialisation occurs through development of a ‘conscience’ via classical conditioning
• People differ in how conditioned
  o Extraversion (E)
  o Neuroticism (N) (moody, anxious)
  o Psychoticism (P) (solitude, lack feelings for others, aggression)
• Introverts condition quickly: Low E + Low N so less likely to offend?
• Extraverts more slow  least likely to learn social control

Question 4

Moffitt (1993) Life Course Theory

Answer 4

• Developmental explanation
  o Offending either marked by continuity or change
• Life-course persistent offenders
  o Small group, antisocial behaviors in childhood (continue to adulthood)
• Adolescence-limited offenders
  o Larger group, antisocial behaviors in adolescence, desist in adulthood
• Different causes for each
  o LCP= Neurobiological deficits (at risk)
  o AL= Consequence of adolescent development

Question 5

Risk Factors

Answer 5

1. Individual Factors:
   a. Hyperactivity & Impulsivity
   b. Intelligence and Attainment
2. Family Factors:
   a. Child-Rearing Methods
   b. Young Mothers and Child Abuse
   c. Parental Conflict and Disrupted Families
   3.Social Factors:
   a. Socioeconomic Status
   b. Peer Influence
   c. Neighbourhood Factors

Question 6

Hoge et al (1996)

Answer 6

• Delinquent youths- criminal activity, reoffending and adjustment
• Strongest risk factors: Family relationships, parenting problems (more re-offending)
• Strongest protective factors: Positive peer relationships, good school achievement, effective use of spare time, positive response to authority

Question 7

Dixon et al (2004)

Answer 7

• Prevalence study
• 100 female juvenile offenders vs 100 matches Age and SES comparison group
• Many significant differences
  o Conduct Disorder O 91% vs 1% NO
  o Substance abuse in offenders (O) 85% and in non-offenders (NO) 5%
  o Alcohol abuse/dependence O = 56% vs NO = 5%
  o Depression O = 55% vs NO = 25%
  o PTSD O = 37% vs NO = 4%
  o Witness to violent crime 30% vs 4%
  o Witness to domestic violence 52% vs 15%
  o Physical abuse 49% vs 9%
  o Sexual abuse 59% vs 6%
  o Living in intact family 16% vs 57%
  o Homeless, in care, living independently or with extended family 50% vs 5%

Question 8

Haapasolo and Kankkonen (1997)

Answer 8

• Retrospective study
• Ppts = 16 sex offenders and 16 violent offenders
• Truancy 88% (SO) vs 69% (VO)
• Expelled 44% (SO) vs 31% (VO)
• Initiated fights 13% (SO) vs 63% (VO)

Question 9

Trzesniewski et al (2006)

Answer 9

• Longitudinal study
• 978 ppts
• Low self esteem = more criminal behaviour in adulthood
• findings could not be explained by adolescent depression, gender or socioeconomic status

Question 10

Huesmann et al (2003)

Answer 10

• longitudinal study
• violent TV at 6-10 increases aggression 10-15 years later
• When other factors controlled

Question 11

Interactive effect

Answer 11

Mednick et al 1984
Twin and adoption studies found genetic predisposition to criminal behaviour
Highlights a biological influence however may overemphasise nature over nurture

Question 12

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Answer 12

Poverty and unemployment strongly correlate with criminal behavior (e.g., Farrington, 2002).

Evaluation: Highlights structural inequality but risks deterministic assumptions.