RISC Flashcards
1
Q
What is the annual average effective dose of radiation to the U.S. population from all sources?
A
500 to 600 mrem (5 to 6 mSv)
This includes background radiation.
2
Q
What does the acronym ALARA stand for?
A
As low as reasonably achievable
This refers to minimizing radiation exposure during nuclear radiology imaging.
3
Q
Who mandates the annual review of the ALARA program?
A
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
The review is conducted by the Radiation Safety Officer (RSO).
4
Q
Fill in the blank: ALARA refers to the judicious use of nuclear radiology imaging such that the level of radiation exposure is as low as _______.
A
reasonably achievable
5
Q
True or False: The ALARA program must be reviewed annually by the Radiation Safety Officer.
A
True
6
Q
How often should the dosimetry records be reviewed by the RSC (Radiation Safety Committee)?
A
every 3 months
7
Q
What is the maximum dose to the public that licensees must ensure does not exceed?
A
100 mrem/year (1 mSv/yr)
This dose applies to hospital staff working outside of radiology/imaging departments.
8
Q
What are the three main measures to decrease radiation exposure to personnel?
A
Time, shielding, and distance
These measures help minimize the risk of radiation exposure.
9
Q
What is required in a radiation protection program?
A
Training and experience of authorized users, inventory of sealed sources and leak testing, record of administered activity
This ensures safety and compliance in radiation handling.
10
Q
How often should personnel dosimetry records be reviewed by the RSO?
A
Quarterly
Regular reviews help maintain accurate monitoring of radiation exposure.
11
Q
What is the purpose of individual dosimeters?
A
Required if personnel exposures are expected to exceed greater than 10% of the annual occupational dose
This ensures proper monitoring of high exposure levels.
12
Q
How often must periodic, planned audits be carried out to verify compliance with the radiation protection program?
A
At least every 12 months
Audits help ensure ongoing compliance and safety measures.
13
Q
Who must perform the audits in a radiation protection program?
A
Trained personnel not having direct responsibilities in the department/facility being audited
This helps maintain objectivity in the audit process.
14
Q
What are restricted and unrestricted areas in nuclear radiology and radiation oncology departments based on?
A
Exposure rates and/or the presence of radioactive materials
This classification helps manage safety and access.
15
Q
What is defined as a ‘radiation area’?
A
Where the effective dose could result in an excess of 5 mrem (0.05 mSv) in 1 hour at 30 cm from a radiation source
This designation indicates potential radiation exposure risks.
16
Q
What characterizes a ‘high radiation area’?
A
Effective dose is up to 100 mrem (1 mSv) in 1 hour at 30 cm from the source
Access to this area requires a visible or audible alarm.
17
Q
What defines a ‘very high radiation area’?
A
Absorbed dose levels could exceed 500 rad (5 Gy) in 1 hour at 1 m from the source or any surface
This area indicates extremely high radiation levels.
18
Q
What sign must be posted where licensed radioactive material is used or stored?
A
‘Caution radioactive materials’ sign
This sign alerts individuals to the potential hazards of radiation.
19
Q
What are unrestricted areas in a medical facility?
A
Reception, waiting areas, office spaces, and reading rooms
These areas must have dose rates less than 2 mrem in any 1 hour or less than 100 mrem/yr.
20
Q
Under what condition is a room occupied by patients with radioactive material not required to have caution signs?
A
If the patients meet criteria for release
Refer to section 6.5.1.3 for details.
21
Q
What is the maximum radiation level at 30 cm from a sealed source that does not require a caution sign?
A
5 mrem (0.05 mSv) per hour
22
Q
What colors are authorized for the standard radiation symbol by the NRC?
A
Magenta, purple, or black on a yellow background
23
Q
What mnemonic can be used to remember the four ways to measure radiation?
A
R-E-A-D
Radioactivity, Exposure,
Absorbed dose, and Dose equivalent
24
Q
What is radioactivity?
A
A process by which an unstable atomic nucleus transitions to a stable configuration by emitting radiation
25
What units are used to measure radioactivity?
Curie (Ci) or becquerel (Bq)
## Footnote
1 mCi = 37 MBq
26
What are alpha particles composed of?
Two protons and two neutrons (a helium nucleus)
27
What is the average travel distance of alpha particles in tissue?
10-100 μm
28
How do beta particles differ from alpha particles?
Beta particles can be electrons (beta-minus) or positrons (beta-plus) and have greater penetration ability than alpha particles
29
What happens during the annihilation event of beta-plus particles?
It ejects two 511 keV gamma rays in opposite directions
30
What are gamma rays?
Electromagnetic waves emitted from the nucleus with low LET and high penetration ability
31
What are x-rays created by?
Beta-minus particles interacting with atomic nuclei through Bremsstrahlung radiation
32
What type of radiation is emitted from the breaking apart of an atomic nucleus?
Neutron radiation
33
Fill in the blank: The dose rates in unrestricted areas must be less than _______ in any 1 hour.
2 mrem
34
True or False: Beta-plus particles travel long distances before combining with beta-minus particles.
False
35
What is the primary use of gamma rays in medical imaging?
Imaging in general nuclear radiology studies
36
What is the significance of annihilation photons in medical imaging?
They are the foundation for PET imaging
37
What is the penetration ability of neutron radiation?
Can penetrate most materials and cause nuclear reactions
38
What is the physical half-life (Tp) of a radionuclide?
The time it takes for 50% of the radionuclide nuclei to decay.
39
What is the biological half-life (Tb) of a radionuclide?
The time it takes for the radionuclide or radiopharmaceutical concentration within the body to reduce to 50% of the original concentration.
40
What is the effective half-life (Te) of a radionuclide?
It represents the combined effects of physical nuclear decay and biological excretion, calculated using the formula 1/Te=1/Tp+1/Tb.
41
How is exposure defined in radiation terms?
The amount of radiation present in the air, measured in Roentgen (R) or coulomb/kilogram (C/kg).
42
What is the unit for measuring absorbed dose?
Gray (Gy) or rad.
43
What does absorbed dose measure?
The amount of radiation absorbed by tissue, scaled by the mass of the tissue.
44
What is Linear Energy Transfer (LET)?
The rate of energy transferred by radiation to a medium per unit of length.
45
Which types of radiation have higher LET?
Alpha particles and neutrons.
46
What is the purpose of the radiation weighting factor (wR)?
To quantify the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of different types of emitted radiation.
47
What is dose equivalent?
A measure used to quantify the RBE of different types of emitted radiation on human tissue.
48
What is the unit for dose equivalent?
Sievert (Sv) or Roentgen equivalent man (rem).
49
What is the organ- or tissue-equivalent dose (HT)?
The resultant weighted dose when the absorbed dose is multiplied by the quality factor (wR).
50
What does the tissue weighting factor (wT) account for?
The relative sensitivity of different organs/tissues to radiation risk of radiocarcinogenesis.
51
How is effective dose calculated?
HE = ΣWTHT, where HT is the organ- or tissue-equivalent dose.
52
What is Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE)?
A radiation dosimetry quantity defined by the NRC to monitor and control human exposure to ionizing radiation.
53
What is the average radiation dose received by U.S. inhabitants each year?
About 3.1 mSv.
54
What is the main source of natural background radiation?
Radon in the air.
55
What additional yearly dose comes from man-made sources of radiation?
2.2 mSv, mostly from medical procedures.
56
What yearly dose from all radiation sources has not been shown to cause harm?
5.3 mSv.
57
Fill in the blank: The absorbed dose is measured in _______.
Gray (Gy) or rad.
58
True or False: The effective dose is the sum of the products of the dose equivalent and the weighting factors for each organ or tissue.
True.
59
What are the three general categories of effects resulting from exposure to radiation?
1. Genetic or hereditary effects passed to progeny
2. Somatic radiation effects to exposed individual (deterministic and stochastic)
3. Teratogenic effects iso in utero radiation exposure
60
What do genetic or hereditary effects refer to?
Effects that are passed on to the progeny of the exposed individual(s)
61
What are somatic radiation effects?
Biological effects of radiation exposure on the cells and tissues of the exposed individual
62
How are somatic radiation effects classified?
Into tissue (deterministic) and stochastic categories
63
What are teratogenic effects?
Developmental abnormalities or birth defects that occur in a fetus due to in utero radiation exposure
64
What is the direct pathway of radiation damage?
Radiation induces single-stranded or double-stranded DNA breaks that lead to cell death
65
During which phase of the cell cycle are cells most sensitive to radiation?
G2/M phase
DNA clumped in tight bundles
66
Which cells are considered radiosensitive and why?
Hematopoietic cells, spermatogonia cells, gastrointestinal stem cells
Cells that are actively dividing are more radiosensitive
67
Which cells are considered radioresistant?
Nerve and muscle cells
68
What is the indirect pathway of radiation damage?
Radiation induces the development of reactive oxygen species that can damage proteins, DNA, and lipids
69
What are deterministic effects?
Effects for which severity increases with dose and has a threshold below which no effects are observed
70
What are typical deterministic effects during medical imaging/radiation therapy?
Skin burns, opacifications, and cataracts
Severity increases with dose passed certain threshold
71
What are stochastic effects?
Effects for which the probability of occurrence increases with dose, but severity does not depend on dose
Primarily carcinogenesis and genetic effects
72
What is the linear no-threshold (LNT) model?
Concept stating there is no threshold dose for stochastic effects
73
How many packages of radioactive materials are shipped each year in the U.S.?
About 3 million packages
74
Who regulates the safety of shipments of radioactive materials?
NRC and the Department of Transportation (DOT)
75
What must the NRC approve before the shipment of nuclear material?
Type A and B packages
76
What is required for a transportation package to be certified by the NRC?
Must withstand a series of accident conditions tested by actual test or computer analysis, performed in sequence to determine cumulative effects
77
What are Type A containers designed for?
To survive normal transportation handling and minor accidents
Compared to Type B packaging which of designed to survive severe accidents
78
What do colored labels on radioactive packages indicate?
Type and level of hazard contained in the package
79
What are the three common labels for radioactive material and their radiation levels at surface and 1 meter?
White I, Yellow II, Yellow III
Surface radiation level: 0.5 and 50 mrem/hr
Radiation at 1 meter: 0.5 and 1 mrem/hr
80
What does the transport index (TI) indicate?
The highest radiation level at 1 meter from the surface of the package expressed in mrem/hr
81
What information must each container of licensed material bear?
Radiation symbol and the words 'CAUTION, RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL' or 'DANGER, RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL'
82
What details must the radioactive material label include?
* Radionuclide(s) present
* Quantity of radioactivity
* Radioactivity date
* Radiation levels
* Kinds of materials
* Mass enrichment
83
What must a licensee do before the removal or disposal of empty uncontaminated containers?
Remove or deface the radioactive material label
84
What must each licensee do prior to the removal or disposal of empty uncontaminated containers?
Remove or deface the radioactive material label or otherwise clearly indicate that the container no longer contains radioactive material.
85
What are the procedures required by the NRC when radioactive packages are received?
1. Receive the package or notification of its arrival expeditiously.
2. Monitor external surfaces for radioactive contamination.
3. Monitor all packages for contamination and radiation levels with a Geiger-Mueller detector.
4. Notify the final delivery carrier and NRC if contamination or radiation levels exceed limits.
5. Maintain written procedures for safely opening packages.
6. Exempt from contamination monitoring when transferring special form sources in licensee-operated vehicles.
86
How soon must monitoring be performed after receiving a package containing radioactive material?
Not later than 3 hours after receipt during normal working hours or 3 hours from the beginning of the next working day if received after working hours.
87
True or False: Licensees are exempt from survey requirements for measuring radiation levels when transferring special form sources.
False
88
What are sealed sources?
Radioactive sources that are permanently or completely contained either by being bonded to a surface or encased in a metal capsule.
89
What is the maximum interval for testing sealed sources?
Not to exceed 6 months.
90
What must a licensee do if a sealed source has leaked?
File a report within 5 days if a leak test reveals 185 Bq (0.005 μCi) or more of removable contamination.
91
What must the written report include if a sealed source leaks?
Model number and serial number, radionuclide and estimated activity, results of the test, date of the test, and corrective action taken.
92
Who can be an authorized user of a diagnostic sealed source or medical device?
A physician, dentist, or podiatrist certified by a specialty board recognized by the NRC or AS, or an AU who has completed specific training.
93
What topics must training for the use of sealed sources include?
Radiation physics and instrumentation, radiation protection, mathematics pertaining to radioactivity, and radiation biology.
94
Fill in the blank: Each licensee must monitor all packages known to contain radioactive material for _______ and radiation levels.
radioactive contamination
95
What is the responsibility of the NRC regarding devices distributed as exempt products?
Only the NRC is responsible for those devices and issues registration certificates.
96
What are examples of exempt quantities in the context of radionuclides?
Natural material and ores, byproduct material in electron tubes, small quantities in check sources, self-luminous products, gas and aerosol detector products, and capsules containing carbon-14 urea
## Footnote
These examples illustrate materials that are not intended to be processed for radionuclides.
97
How long must licensees retain records of surveys, calibrations, and sealed source leak checks?
3 years after the record is made
## Footnote
This retention period ensures compliance and availability for audits.
98
What records must be retained for the duration of the license?
* Results of surveys for external dose assessment
* Measurements for individual intakes of radioactive material
* Air sampling and bioassays
* Evaluations of radioactive effluent releases
## Footnote
These records are crucial for regulatory compliance and safety assessments.
99
What is required for licensees to ensure compliance with radiation levels?
Surveys of areas, including subsurface, to evaluate radiation levels and potential hazards
## Footnote
This helps in identifying and mitigating radiological risks.
100
What instrument must licensees use to survey radiation levels?
Geiger-Mueller meter
## Footnote
This instrument is commonly used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.
101
What conditions must be satisfied for a licensee to discharge licensed material into sanitary sewerage?
* Material must be readily soluble in water
* Quantity must not exceed predefined concentration limits
* Total yearly releases must not exceed specified curie limits
## Footnote
These conditions ensure that discharges do not pose a risk to public health.
102
What are the annual dose limits for minors compared to adult workers?
10 percent of the annual dose limits specified for adult workers
## Footnote
This reflects the increased sensitivity of minors to radiation exposure.
103
What must a licensee do if a worker exceeds 10% of the occupational exposure limit in a quarter?
Conduct an investigation to determine the cause of the higher exposure
## Footnote
This investigation includes evaluating adherence to ALARA principles.
104
What is the purpose of radiopharmaceuticals?
Used in diagnostic or therapeutic medical procedures
## Footnote
They emit radiation for imaging or treatment purposes.
105
What does the FDA oversee regarding radiopharmaceuticals?
Clinical administration through approved New Drug Applications (NDA) or Abbreviated New Drug Applications (ANDA)
## Footnote
This oversight ensures safety and efficacy in medical use.
106
What is required for a manufacturer to obtain a specific license for radioactive drugs?
* Registration with the FDA
* Licensing with a state agency as a drug manufacturer
* Licensing as a pharmacy by a state board of pharmacy
## Footnote
These requirements ensure that only qualified entities handle radioactive drugs.
107
True or False: Licensees can allow public access to controlled areas without restrictions.
False
## Footnote
Public dose limits still apply even in controlled areas.
108
Fill in the blank: The total effective dose equivalent to individual members of the public must not exceed _______ in a year.
100 mrem (1 mSv)
## Footnote
This limit excludes contributions from background radiation and medical exposures.
109
What must each syringe or vial containing unsealed radioactive byproduct material be labeled with?
Identification of the radiopharmaceutical.
## Footnote
Includes the radionuclide, chemical form, amount, expiration date, and dispensing pharmacy information.
110
What additional information is required on radiopharmaceutical dosage labels?
* Radiopharmaceutical radionuclide
* Radiopharmaceutical chemical form
* Amount and date/time of measurement
* Expiration date and time
* Quantity, including volume or weight
* Name, address, and telephone number of the dispensing nuclear pharmacy
* Prescription or lot number
* Name of the radiopharmaceutical
## Footnote
This information is critical for safety and proper administration.
111
What must be included on labels for radiolabeled blood components and radiotherapies?
Patient’s name.
## Footnote
Ensures the correct administration to the right patient.
112
What exemption is allowed regarding patient identification when dispensing radiopharmaceuticals?
A 72-hour exemption to obtain the patient's name.
## Footnote
The patient's name must be associated with the prescription within 72 hours and retained for 3 years
113
What must be recorded before medical use of radiopharmaceuticals?
Radiopharmaceutical activities.
## Footnote
This includes unit dosages determined by direct measurement or decay correction.
114
What is the permitted variation for administered dosage from the prescribed dosage?
±20%.
## Footnote
Administered dosages outside this range require modification of the prescription.
115
What identifiers must be used to confirm a patient's identity before radiopharmaceutical administration?
* Individual’s name
* Assigned identification number
* Telephone number
* Date of birth
* Person-specific identifier
* Electronic identification technology coding
## Footnote
Two patient identifiers are necessary for verification.
116
True or False: Licensees must notify the NRC Operations Center within the next calendar day after discovering a dose to an embryo/fetus or nursing child.
True.
## Footnote
Notification is required by telephone for doses exceeding 5000 mrem (50 mSv) unless approved by the authorized user.
Written report must be submitted within 15 days
117
What must be included in the written report to the NRC Regional Office within 15 days of dose administration discovery?
* Licensee's name
* Prescribing physician's name
* Description of the event
* Reason for the event
* Effect on the embryo/fetus or nursing child
* Actions taken to prevent recurrence
* Certification of notification to the pregnant individual or mother
## Footnote
The report must exclude any identifying information about the individual or child.
118
What is the ALARA principle?
As low as reasonably achievable.
## Footnote
This principle emphasizes minimizing radiation exposure.
119
What recommendations are made for breastfeeding mothers who require Lu-DOTATATE177
Permanent cessation for current child
120
Fill in the blank: The recommended interruption for 131I-NaI and 124I-NaI is _______.
Permanent cessation for the current child.
## Footnote
Breastfeeding should stop six weeks prior to therapy.
121
What should be done after treatment with unsealed byproduct material?
Survey all articles for contamination before removal.
## Footnote
This includes bedding, clothing, and food trays.
122
What type of shielding is preferred for positron emitters?
Tungsten shielding.
## Footnote
Tungsten provides better radiation attenuation at a smaller thickness.
123
What materials are effective for shielding beta emitters?
* Acrylic
* Aluminum
## Footnote
These materials are more effective than lead due to bremsstrahlung concerns.
124
What is required for the release of any patient who received unsealed byproduct material?
Criteria discussed in section 6.5.1.3 must be followed.
## Footnote
This includes surveying the individual for contamination.
125
What should be done if a patient's identity cannot be verified?
Use a temporary means of identification.
## Footnote
Formal identification should occur as soon as possible.
126
What is the role of radiation safety practices during the transport of radiopharmaceuticals?
Ensure good radiation safety practices are followed.
## Footnote
This may include monitoring by radiation safety staff.
127
What is the primary use of radioactive byproduct material in medicine?
Calibration sources, radioactive drugs, bone mineral analyzers, brachytherapy sources, gamma surgery devices, teletherapy units
## Footnote
Radioactive byproduct materials are utilized in various medical applications.
128
What must be obtained for internal or external administrations of byproduct material to patients?
A medical use license
## Footnote
This is required for regulatory compliance in medical applications.
129
Which agency has regulatory authority over the medical use of nuclear materials?
NRC or the responsible Agreement State (AS)
## Footnote
This regulatory authority covers possession and use of byproduct materials in medicine.
130
What are the responsibilities of the NRC in medical uses of nuclear material?
Licensing, inspection, and enforcement programs
## Footnote
The NRC issues licenses, develops guidance, and maintains a committee of medical experts.
131
What does the FDA oversee in relation to nuclear materials?
Good practices in the manufacturing of radiopharmaceuticals, medical devices, and radiation-producing machines
## Footnote
This includes x-ray machines and accelerators.
132
What is required for a state to receive regulatory authority from the NRC?
An agreement signed by the governor and the chair of the commission
## Footnote
This allows the state to license and regulate byproduct materials.
133
What does IMPEP stand for?
Integrated Materials Performance Evaluation Program
## Footnote
This program ensures the adequacy of radiation control programs in Agreement States and requires NRC to periodically review AS
134
Who must a licensee have to oversee the radiation protection program?
A radiation safety officer (RSO)
## Footnote
The RSO is responsible for implementing and verifying radiation safety activities.
135
What qualifications are needed to become an RSO?
Bachelor's degree in physical or biological science, 5 years of experience in health physics (including 3 yrs of applied health physics), pass an exam
136
What authority does an RSO have?
Identify radiation safety problems, initiate corrective actions, stop unsafe operations
## Footnote
The RSO verifies implementation of corrective actions.
137
What is an authorized user (AU)?
A physician, dentist, or podiatrist specified on the license to authorize medical use of byproduct material
## Footnote
AUs must meet training and experience criteria.
138
What is required for an AU to begin duties?
Experience with radiation safety aspects and written attestation from a preceptor RSO
## Footnote
The AU must be responsible for implementing the radiation protection program.
139
What are the three types of broad scope licenses?
Type A: largest, academic center, RSC and RSO
Type B: smaller programs, RSO only
Type C : institutions not requiring large quantity, but diverse variety like research labs
140
What is a Master Materials License (MML)?
A license issued by NRC to federal organizations to use byproduct material at multiple sites
## Footnote
The MML allows for regulatory activities by the federal agency. Must be inspected every 2 years by NRC
141
What is a 'written directive'?
An AU's written order for administering byproduct material to a specific patient
## Footnote
This is crucial for documentation in medical use of radioactive materials.
142
Does the use of unsealed byproduct material for uptake studies require a written directive?
No
## Footnote
Certain conditions allow for this exemption.
143
What training is required for an AU conducting unsealed byproduct material studies?
60 hours of training and experience in radionuclide handling
## Footnote
This includes classroom and laboratory training.
144
What is the minimum number of hours of training required for imaging and localization studies?
700 hours
## Footnote
This training must include classroom and laboratory experience.
145
What is required for the use of unsealed byproduct material prepared for medical use?
A written directive from a licensed manufacturer following NRC or equivalent AS requirements
## Footnote
Excludes production of PET radionuclides, prepared by an ANP or AU or an individual under supervision of an ANP or AU.
146
What training is required for individuals using unsealed byproduct material for which a written directive is required?
Certification by a recognized medical specialty board, residency training in radiation therapy, or nuclear medicine
## Footnote
Residency must include 700 hours (200 classroom) and passing an exam in radiation safety, radionuclide handling, quality assurance, and clinical use.
147
What minimum work experience is needed for AU status?
Three cases each in:
* Oral administration of ≤ 1.22 GBq sodium iodide 131I
* Oral administration of > 1.22 GBq sodium iodide 131I
* Parenteral administration of radioactive drugs for which a written directive is required.
148
What must be documented for patients under 50 receiving therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals?
A negative serum beta-hCG pregnancy test must be documented in the patient's chart
## Footnote
Test must be within one week of sodium iodide 131I therapy.
149
What is required for oral administration of sodium iodide 131I in quantities greater than 1.22 GBq?
An authorized user who fulfills the same requirements as for quantities less than 1.22 GBq.
150
What should be done to prepare a room for a patient receiving therapeutic ionizing radiation?
Signage indicating radiation hazard, plastic wrap on frequently touched surfaces, linen and trash hampers inside the room
## Footnote
The head of the bed should be against the outside wall.
151
What precautions should be taken to minimize healthcare workers' exposure to patients' body fluids?
Manage nausea and emesis, encourage patients to handle their own urine collection, and instruct patients on toilet flushing
## Footnote
Encourage vigorous hydration and frequent showers.
152
What protocols should be followed in case of a medical emergency for a patient receiving sodium iodide 131I?
Follow facility-specific protocols, potentially relax radiation restrictions for immediate risk situations.
153
What is the NRC's limit for radiation dose to third parties after sodium iodide 131I treatment?
500 mrem (5 mSv)
## Footnote
Average annual exposure from natural and background radiation is about 300 mrem (3 mSv).
154
What should treating physicians inquire about regarding patients' post-treatment destinations?
Intended destination to provide instructions on managing exposure to others.
155
What is the required action if the dose to a breastfeeding infant could exceed 1 mSv?
Provide guidance on interruption or discontinuation of breastfeeding and potential consequences.
156
What is required for the parenteral administration of unsealed byproduct material?
An authorized user who is a physician meeting NRC or AS requirements or certified by a recognized medical specialty board.
157
What must be done for each patient who cannot be released after therapy?
Quarter the patient in a private room or with another individual who also cannot be released, and visibly post a 'Radioactive Materials' sign.
158
What is the maximum allowable concentration of 99Mo in 99mTc administered to humans?
More than 0.15 kBq of 99Mo per MBq of 99mTc (0.15 uCi of 99Mo per mCi of 99mTc).
159
What is required if an eluate exceeds permissible concentration after generator elution for Sr/Rb?
Report by telephone within 7 days and submit a written report to the NRC within 30 days.
## Footnote
written report includes action taken, dose assessment, methodology, probable cause, assessment of failure in equipment
160
What must be done to ensure records are legible during the retention period?
Records may be stored in electronic media capable of producing legible copies.
161
What is the significance of the dose calibrator in the hot lab?
Measures radioactivity in vials, syringes, and capsules while minimizing radiation exposure to personnel.
162
What contaminant could lead to high radiation exposure in patients?
68Ge
## Footnote
68Ge can contaminate 68Ga radiopharmaceuticals.
163
Is there a specified limit of breakthrough for 68Ge/68Ga generators?
No
## Footnote
Applicants must commit individually to safety protocols to the NRC.
164
What must each record required by the licensee include?
All pertinent information
## Footnote
Includes stamps, initials, and signatures.
165
What should a licensee do if licensed material is lost, stolen, or missing?
Report by telephone to the NRC
## Footnote
A written report is required within 30 days.
166
What information must be included in the written report for lost licensed material?
Description of the licensed material
## Footnote
Includes kind, quantity, and chemical/physical form.
167
What actions should a licensee take after reporting lost licensed material?
Report actions taken to recover the material
## Footnote
Include procedures to prevent recurrence.
168
What must a licensee report within 30 days regarding occupational dose limits?
Doses in excess of occupational dose limits
## Footnote
Includes limits for adults, minors, and pregnant individuals.
169
What should be included in reports of excess radiation air emissions?
Individual dose estimates and levels of radiation
## Footnote
Include cause of elevated exposures and corrective steps.
170
How long must a licensee retain records of actions taken for the RSO?
5 years
## Footnote
Must include a summary and signature of licensee management.
171
What is the retention period for a written directive?
3 years
## Footnote
Each licensee must retain a copy.
172
How long should a record of instrument and radiation survey calibrations be maintained
3 years
## Footnote
Must include model, serial number of instrument, calibration date, results, and technician's name.
173
What must be included in dosage determination records and for how long
3 years. Radiopharmaceutical and patient's information (name/identification number)
Includes prescribed and determined dosages, as well as name of who determined the dose
174
What records must a licensee retain for leak tests?
Leak test records for 3 years
## Footnote
Must include source identity and test results. Name of person who performed the test
175
How long must a licensee retain records of the semi-annual physical inventory?
3 years
## Footnote
Applies to sealed sources and brachytherapy sources.
176
What information must be recorded for each survey conducted?
Date, results, and instrument used
## Footnote
Includes the name of the person who performed the survey.
177
How long must a licensee retain a record of the basis for authorizing the release of an individual?
3 years
If the total effective dose equivalent is calculated by using retained activity or activity administered, using an occupancy factor less than 0.25 at 1 meter, or using the biological vs effective half life
178
What conditions require a licensee to retain a record for 3 years regarding breastfeeding individuals?
If the radiation dose to the infant or child from continued breastfeeding could result in a total effective dose equivalent exceeding 5 mSv (0.5 rem)
179
What does the term 'medical event' refer to in the context of nuclear radiology and radiation therapy?
A problem in a medical facility’s use of radioactive materials
180
What constitutes a 'medical event' involving radioactive materials?
If both dosage given differs from prescribed dose by more than specified limits and one or more specific incidents occur
181
List the incidents that can qualify as part of a 'medical event'.
* Dosage off by at least 20% from prescribed dosage
* Wrong drug used
* Drug given by wrong route
* Wrong individual receives dosage
* Dosage administered to wrong body part and exceeds by 50%
* Sealed source used in treatment leaks
182
True or False: A medical event always results in harm to a patient.
False
183
What actions must be taken in the case of a major spill?
* Clear the area
* Prevent the spread
* Shield the source
* Close the room
* Call for help
* Personnel decontamination
* Cleanup supervised by RSO
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What is the first step in the case of a minor spill?
Notify persons in the area that a spill has occurred
185
How is removable radioactive material assessed on surfaces?
By wiping the area with a filter or soft absorbent paper and assessing the amount of radioactive material with an appropriate instrument
186
What is a 'dirty bomb'?
A type of radiological dispersal device (RDD) that combines a conventional explosive with radioactive material
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How does a dirty bomb differ from a nuclear bomb?
A nuclear bomb creates a much larger explosion and spreads radiation over thousands of square miles, while a dirty bomb's radiation disperses within a few blocks or miles
188
What factors affect the extent of local contamination from a dirty bomb?
* Size of the explosive
* Amount and type of radioactive material used
* Means of dispersal
* Weather conditions
189
What are the general protective actions against radiation exposure?
* Minimize time exposed
* Maximize distance from source
* Shield from exposure
190
What is Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS)?
Radiation exposures involving acute high dose radiation exposure, high dose rate, external penetrating radiation, and greater than 70% of body exposure
191
List the phases of Acute Radiation Syndrome.
* Prodromal phase
* Latent phase
* Manifest illness
* Recovery or death
192
What is the estimated LD50/60 of acute, whole-body, low-LET irradiation without medical intervention?
3.5 to 4.0 Gy
193
What are some FDA-approved treatments for ARS?
* Filgramostim (NeupogenR)
* PEGylated filgramostim (NeulastaR)
* Sargramostim (LeukineR)
* Romiplostim (NplateR)
194
What is the function of a Geiger-Mueller Counter?
To detect radiation by measuring ion pairs created when radiation enters a sealed tube filled with gas
195
What are the two main parts of a Geiger-Mueller Counter?
A sealed tube filled with gas and an information display
## Footnote
The tube detects radiation and the display shows the count of ion pairs created.
196
What happens when radiation enters the Geiger-Mueller Counter?
It collides with the gas, creating an ion pair by pushing an electron away from the gas atom.
197
What does the Geiger counter measure?
Counts per minute, indicating the number of ion pairs created every 60 seconds.
198
What type of information does a Geiger counter NOT provide?
The type of radiation or its energy.
199
What is the primary use of Well Counters?
High-sensitivity counting of radioactive specimens such as blood or urine samples.
200
What is included in a Well Counter?
A cylindric scintillation crystal, a photomultiplier tube (PMT), and associated electronics.
201
What is the significance of a multichannel analyzer (MCA) in modern scintillation well counters?
It allows for energy-selective counting.
202
What type of radiation can Well Counters reliably be used for counting activities up to approximately?
37 kBq (0.001 mCi).
203
What is the consequence of higher activities in Well Counters?
Dead-time counting losses become prohibitive, leading to inaccurate measurements.
204
What do Scintillation Detection Systems utilize?
A substance that creates a flash of light when ionizing radiation interacts with it.
205
What is Liquid scintillation counting used for?
To identify and quantify low levels of radioactivity, such as for contamination of particulate emitting radioactive samples (b and a)
206
What type of radiation are solid scintillators sensitive to?
Gamma radiation.
207
What is an Ionization Chamber?
An instrument used to measure the number of ions within a medium.
208
What is the basic structure of an Ionization Chamber?
A gas-filled enclosure between two conducting electrodes (anode and cathode).
209
What is the function of an Ionization Chamber when gas is ionized?
Creates an ionization current that can be measured.
210
What are the two types of ionization chambers?
Open and sealed ionization chambers.
211
What are open ionization chambers typically used for?
Personal dosimeters.
212
What are Radioisotope dose calibrators?
Sealed ionization chambers calibrated to specific isotopes.
213
What is the purpose of radio-thin-layer chromatography (radio-TLC)?
To analyze the purity of radiopharmaceuticals or determine reaction conversion.
214
Why is radio-TLC preferred over radio-high-performance liquid chromatography in some applications?
Due to its simplicity and relatively quick analysis time.
215
What does radio-TLC extend from?
Techniques used in paper chromatography (PC).
216
Radiation restricted areas include what?
radiopharmaceutical preparation, radiopharmaceutical administration, radiopharmaceutical storage, and imaging
217
What is the whole-body annual dose limit for occupational workers?
50 mSv (5000 mrem)
218
What radiation has low LET/weighting factor
X rays, gamma rays, beta particles
219
What type of radiation has high LET/weighting factor
Alpha particles >fast neutrons>slow neutrons
Causes greater tissue damage
220
A measure in Ci or Bq indicates what?
A measure in mSv indicates what?
Radioactivity of a substance
Amount of energy that a radioactive source deposits in living tissue (gives relative scale of risk)
221
222
When during the cell cycle are cells most radio-resistant?
Late S phase because of active DNA repair mechanisms
223
224
225
What must the test to certify transportation packaging by the NRC address to receive certificate of compliance?
Structural and thermal integrity, radiation shielding, nuclear criticality, material content confinement
226
What is the transport index (TI) of the various package labels?
White 1: no TI
Yellow 2: 1
Yellow 3: less than 10
227
What is the maximum TI for nonexclusive use vehicles or open exclusive use vehicles?
10 mrem/hr
This can be exceeded only if package is transported in exclusive use closed vehicle
228
Total quantity of radioactive material that the licensee releases into the sanitary system must not exceed
5 Ci of hydrogen-3
1 Ci of carbon-14
1 Ci of all other radioactive materials combined
229
Maximum allowable occupational dose
Whole body:
Eye lens:
Individual organs/skin/extremity:
5000 mrem/year
15000 mrem/year
50000 mrem/year
Children is 10%
230
Maximum allowable dose of
Pregnant worker:
Visitor/caregiver/family member:
Member of public:
500 mrem/gestation
500 mrem/duration of contact
100 mrem/year
231
Radiopharmaceutical dosage labels require
Radiopharmaceutical name, chemical form, radionuclide, amount, quantity, expiration, time/date of measurement.
Prescription or lot number.
Name, address, and telephone number of dispensing pharmacy
232
233
Brachytherapy and radioactive seed localization on breastfeeding
Requires suspension while seeds are in place, but can resume after their removal
234
235
Written directive is required when
Administering oral sodium iodide 131 in quantities less than or equal to 30 microC
236
How often should patient and room by surveyed with dosimeters during active treatment
At least daily at the prescribed points
237
What is the maximum allowed amount of 99Mo per MBq of 99mTc that a licensee may administer?
More than 0.15 kBq of 99Mo per MBq of 99mTc (0.15 uCi of 99Mo per mCi of 99mTc)
## Footnote
This limit ensures safety in the administration of radiopharmaceuticals.
238
What is the maximum amount of 82Sr allowed per MBq of 82Rb chloride injection?
More than 0.02 kBq of 82Sr per MBq of 82Rb chloride injection (0.02 uCi of 82Sr per mCi of 82Rb chloride)
## Footnote
This limit is set to minimize radiation exposure to patients.
239
What is the maximum amount allowed of 85Sr per MBq of 82Rb chloride injection?
More than 0.2 kBq of 85Sr per MBq of 82Rb chloride injection (0.2 uCi of 85Sr per mCi of 82Rb)
## Footnote
This regulation is part of radiopharmaceutical safety standards.
240
What must be done if an eluate exceeded permissible concentration
Report by telephone within 7 calendar days and submit written report within 30 days to the NRC
241
How long should a record of actions be retained
5 years including duties and responsibilities of RSO and radiation safety procedures
242
243
How long should surveys for ambient radiation exposure rate be retained
3 years. Include date of survey, results, instrument used, and name of person who performed the survey
