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CDP > Rijtjes, theorieën en modellen > Flashcards

Rijtjes, theorieën en modellen Flashcards

1
Q

What 4 factors are involved in the genotype-> environment theory and which one influences which? (by Scarr & McCartney; intelligence)

A
  1. Child’s genotype (influences phenotype child and child rearing environment)
  2. Phenotype child (influences child rearing environment)
  3. Genotype parents (influences child’s genotype and child rearing environment)
  4. Child rearing environment (influences phenotype of child)
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2
Q

What were the 3 main results from Sameroff on risk factors & IQ? (intelligence)

A
  1. More risk factors (premature birth, low SES, etc.) –> lower IQ
  2. Risk factors added up: if you have one risk factor, you’re likely to have more
  3. Downward spiral: hard to overcome a risk factor, because it’s often associated with another risk factor
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3
Q

What is the criticism on the g-factor (general intelligence factor, mental power) by Spearman? (intelligence)

A
  1. It’s not theoretical
  2. No developmental model, how does it work?
  3. Where is g?
  4. What is g?

Homunculus problem: G explanation seems economical but introduces invisible force (about which can’t be talked about any further)

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4
Q

Cognitive development is not possible without (2 ;intelligence):

A
  1. Self-esteem (considering yourself capable)
  2. Academic emotions: evoked by:
    - value attached to an academic task (I think this is important/this is worthless evokes different emotion)
    - perceived control (how much do you feel in control (has to do with self-esteem, capability, enjoyment)

Academic emotions –> can activate and deactivate children’s behavior
e.g.: He’s bored –> he will not put much effort in school task vs. He is happy –> he will put more effort in school task

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5
Q

What were the main results of the study of Blackwell on incremental theory? (intelligence)

A

Study of children in transition to secondary school (middelbare)

Results:
- Children with an incremental theory gradually scored higher on math grades compared to children with a entity theory over the years.

Conclusion:
- The more incremental theory (growth mindset) –> better the learning goals (strategies) & more positive effort beliefs (if I put effort, I can do it).

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6
Q

Name the 4 affective and motivational variables of intelligence: (intelligence)

A
  1. Endorsing stereotype
  2. Self-esteem, emotions, goal-orientation, mindset
  3. Involved effort
  4. Performance
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7
Q

What are the 3 explanations for the increase of heredity on IQ with age? (intelligence)

A

(family environment influence decreases, genes influence increases, influence unique environment stays the same)

  1. People select own environment when they grow older
  2. Some genes are switched on later
  3. Decrease in factor family/shared environment is explained by the decreasing influence of parents as kids grow older
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8
Q

What is Gardner’s theory and what is the evidence? (intelligence)

A

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences:

There are different types of intelligences:

  • music smart
  • body smart
  • self smart
  • nature smart
  • people smart
  • word smart
  • logic smart
  • picture smart

Everyone is good at something –> attractive theory to parents and teachers.

There is no convincing evidence for Gardner’s theory.

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9
Q

What are results from studies on the effect of school on IQ? (intelligence)

A
  1. Correlation between number of school years and IQ (corrected for SES)
  2. IQ drop during school holidays
  3. IQ drop in kids who do not attend school consistently (truancy, illness)
  4. Starting school later –> lower IQ
  5. Dropout –> lower IQ
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10
Q

In what way is school a compensation effect for children? (intelligence)

A
  • School teaches skills that can affect other skills (mutualistic relationships: if you gain more knowledge it’s easier to read, etc.).
  • School prevents that a disadvantage is multiplied by a disadvantageous environment. So school is very important to prevent negative spiral (individual multiplier effect).

So school is a compensation effect (providing great environment for kids who tend to spiral down).

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11
Q

What forms self-concept? (resiliency)

A
  • Social relationships central to development of self
  • Interactions and feedback from (parents, teachers,
    peers)
  • Self-perceived ability
  • Self-esteem
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12
Q

How do answers to self-evaluative tasks change with age? (resiliency)

A

(puberty more sensitive/less self-esteem i.e.)

Bijv.:

6y: “I’m great at reading! I know because my teacher told me so and I received a 9!” (based on environment)
8y: “I’m okay, but this kid is way better.” (Compare to others, see themselves more as average)

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13
Q

What are the result and the mechanism of the Susperreguy study? (resiliency)

A

Findings:

  • More positive verbal self-concept higher levels of verbal ability
  • More positive math self-concept higher levels of math ability
  • but: more positive math self-concept no correlation (or negative one) with higher levels of reading ability (and the other way around)
    So: Domain-specific (math-math & verbal-verbal)
  • Self-concept of math and reading in childhood –> achievement at later age in each domain
  • Across all levels of achievement (low-high, vmbo-vwo bijv.) (so higher achievers do not necessarily have higher self-concept)

Mechanism:

What can be the mechanism?: because students believe they have the ability, they might persist and invest more in study-related activities  they learn more and achieve more.

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14
Q

What factors contribute to self-esteem? (resiliency)

A
  1. Parenting
    - Directly contributing to self-esteem by: praise
    - Indirectly contributing to self-esteem by: bonding, warm relationship, showing interest, making them feel loved
  2. Sociometer theory (self-esteem)
  3. Social comparison theory (self-perceived ability)
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15
Q

Sociometer theory (self-esteem) (resiliency):

A
  • Relationships
  • Self-esteem seen as internal monitor of degree to how much child is valued by others (measure of the effectiveness and interaction in social relations) (e.g.: other people like me)
  • If child has relational value –> child has higher self-esteem
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16
Q

Social comparison theory (self-perceived ability) (resiliency):

A
  • Children (older children 8/9y) compare themselves with others to evaluate ability (and worth)
  • -> the older children get, the more realistic they evaluate themselves
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17
Q

Cvencek research (resiliency):

A
  • 4 categories: me, not me, good, bad (me/not me = flags, good/bad = positive vs. negative words)
  • My flags & good (positive) words & not-my flags and bad (negative) words –> 2nd time task reversed
  • Test: reaction time faster with association me and good words than me with bad words = more self-esteem.
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18
Q

Spilt research (resiliency) results, discussion and limitations:

A

Results:

  1. Peer rejection predicted internalizing problems via self-concept (mediator approved)
  2. Partial support for hypothesis teacher support as moderator (not very strong). So teachers may compensate negative effects of peer rejection.
  3. Effects same for boys and girl

Discussion:

  1. Inconsistent results over time
    - Effect peer rejection on self-concept was not found in young children at time 4
    - Effect social self-concept on internalizing only found at time 3+4
    - -> Possible explanation: With age social self-concept becomes more and more stable when children get older. In older children self-perception is less influenced by environment (what parents/teachers/peers tell them).
  2. Teacher effect inconsistent over time
    • -> Explanation for medium effect teacher support as moderator:
      1. Effect teacher support may take time, you may not see the positive effects of teacher support immediately, you may see it later in life in children
      2. Teachers may change every year > can counteract

Limitations:

  • Low reliability social self-concept at timepoint 1 (Low Cronbach’s alpha; probably also because children are young)
  • Only peer rejection checked, not victimization/lack of friends/etc.
  • Didn’t look at other mediators (loneliness, negative beliefs about peers, etc.)
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19
Q

Calkins’ 3 levels (indicators) of resiliency and the results:

A
  1. Biological: maturation of nervous system (heart rate)
  2. Behavioral: temperament (negative emotionality)
    (=biological, but expressed on behavioral level)
  3. Relational: e.g. parent-child relationship (insecure attachment, neglect, harsh and negative control)

Results:
- All 3 factors (BBR) were predictive of externalizing and internalizing problems

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20
Q

Why is self-esteem important for children?

A
  • Healthy self-esteem forms emotional buffer to setbacks in life
  • Healthy self-esteem enables children to develop resiliency toward failures
  • Relationship between self-esteem and resiliency is important for learning and education (e.g.: setbacks when you score lower than other kids/older siblings -> can be buffered by self-esteem)
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21
Q

James-Lange theory and criticism (emotions):

A
  • Stimuli > physiological/bodily responses > experience bodily responses = emotional experience = emotion
    Example: lion > tense body > I feel that my body is tense, I am afraid
  • No cognition or appraisal

But (criticism):

  1. Without physiological responses still emotions
  2. Physiological response overlap between emotions (increased heart rate with anger and fear)
  3. Physiological reactions do not always lead to emotions (injection of adrenaline does not lead to emotions)
  4. Does not take object/reason of emotion into account (e.g.: you feel sad because of rejection)
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22
Q

Schachter-Singer theory and criticism (emotion):

A
  • Stimuli > physiological arousal > attribution of arousal (I run away so I must be afraid) > emotion

But

  • Subliminal offering of stimuli makes those positive (unconscious awareness exists), so:
  • We don’t need attribution/cognition to have emotion
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23
Q

Appraisal theory (emotion):

A
  • Cognition is not necessarily conscious
  • Stimuli > appraisal stimuli (cognitive) > action tendency (motivational) > physiological approach (somatic) > behavior (motor) > attribution of emotion
  • Cognitive, motivational, somatic, motor lead to emotional experience, emotion
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24
Q

Still-phase experiment (emotion):

A

Parent has a still face, no reaction to child, child is trying to get a reaction from parent in every way. Depressive parents (still face) influences emotion regulation children

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25
Q

Design and conclusion experiment Sullivan & Lewis (emotion):

A
  • Babies learn how to turn music on & off by learning the link
  • Acquisition (learning link by raising arm and music turns on/off)
  • Followed by:
    1. Extinction (raising the arm doesn’t work anymore)
    2. Partial extinction (Sometimes raising the arm influences music)
    3. Non-contingency (Music sometime starts or stops, but randomly, not because of raising arm)

Conclusion

  • They stay angry when they don’t learn the association to put the music on and off (non-contingency phase most angry and sadness)
  • Babies get most frustrated and angry when they no longer have control
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26
Q

What 3 complex emotions develop later in life, from 3-6 years (emotion)?

A
  1. shyness
  2. shame and guilt (self-awareness)
  3. pride
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27
Q

Visual search task (Öhman; emotion):

A
  • Seeing something (a positively/negatively loaded word) can influence the next word you see
  • Task: search the flower
  • Scared of spiders: takes longer to find the flower, because you are distracted by spider. Will find spider (among flowers) faster, because their attention is drawn to is.
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28
Q

Attentional blink task: subliminal (emotions):

A
  • More difficult to identify green (next) word if first word is loaded negatively
  • Amount of seconds between 2 exposed words matters, etc.
  • So type of words, time between words and instruction for identifying words matters
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29
Q

What is the design and results of the interpretation study by Davey et al. (emotion)?

A
  • Mood induction: imagining + sounds/music + pictures
  • Mood induction(disgust/anxiety/joy/neutral)
  • Negative mood induction influences which word (homophone) they choose (anxiety = flee (vlucht) over flea (vlooi)

Results:

  • Negative mood induction (disgust/anxious) > more words interpreted as threat (negatively)
  • Positive/neutral mood induction > more words interpreted as positive
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30
Q

Explain the 5 parts of the process model of emotion regulation (emotion):

A
  1. Situation selection
    - Choices we make/situations we select in view of our future emotional experiences (e.g.: drink before scary situation)
    - Problem: memory and vision of the future are not perfect
  2. Situation modification
    - Here and now solution (volume to high, turn down volume)
  3. Attentional deployment
    - Focusing attention on certain aspects of situation
    - Delayed gratification experiment (Michel et al., 1989) –> marshmallow experiment (children look away from the marshmallow, focus attention elsewhere)
    - Can be trained with attention training

(MacLeod et al. (2002) –> being trained not to attend to (focus on) the negative stimuli but focus on the neutral stimuli. Negative condition more stressed at post-training compared to neutral condition

  1. Cognitive change
    - Appraisal theories: meaning/interpretation people give (consciously/unconsciously) to a stimulus is crucial in the experience of emotion
    - Reappraisal of stimulus changes the whole emotional response
    - Can be trained

Wolgast et al., 1998)

  • Emotion-induction with movie: disgust, sadness, anxiety
  • Instruction to 1. just look vs. 2. reappraisal (= ‘Watch movie but remember it’s just a movie, it’s not real.’)
  • Self-report and SCR: less negative emotion (disgust/sad/anxiety) and SCR in reappraisal condition compared to look-condition
  1. Response modulation
    - Change experience, behavior, physiology
    - Idea: emotions influence response, if you change response you can also change emotion
    - Example: poker face
    2 views:
    1: When you control facial expression, other systems (e.g. physio) start responding more strongly
    2: Facial-feedback hypothesis: we infer emotions from our facial expression, so poker face reduces emotional experience
31
Q

Development of emotion regulation (emotions):

A

Babies:

  • Very dependent on parents (extrinsic emotion regulation)
  • Primitive: turning away head
  • Social referencing: using other people’s expression to interpret new emotional situations (experiment with cliff; child looks at mom’s expression to see if he can crawl on the glass table)

Toddlers:
- Language development (marshmallow: “She still won’t give you two because you ate it. I did not, so I will receive another one.” –> expresses pride/relief to himself

Preschoolers:
- Social rules: what emotions to show, how intense?
Complicated for a child to regulate emotions
–> distinguishing between what you feel and what you show (exaggerating pain/grief, faking emotions to get attention)
- Development of cognitive emotion regulation
- directing attention away
- thinking about something else
- interpretations

Further development:

  • More, better and more specialized emotion regulation
  • Importance of differentiation between “observers (of emotion)” in adolescence (showing emotions to friends but not to parents for example)
  • Does not stop. More effective strategies when older (60 vs. 20)
32
Q

What are the 5 stages of development and at what age do they occur? (intro)

A
  1. Biological Regulation (0m)
    - Regulating basic biological processes (e.g.: feel cycle)
  2. Face-to-face interactions (2m)
    - Visual control develops (e.g.: facial recognition)
  3. Topic sharing (5m)
    =including external topics in interaction (attention to object)
  4. Reciprocity (8-9m)
    8-9 months
    - Joint coordination possible –> parent-child game (play with a car i.e.)
  5. Symbolic representations (1.5y)
    - using gestures to symbolize objects –> important for interaction –> development of trust between child and caretaker (e.g. raising palms = idk)
33
Q

What are 3 moderators of interaction/parenting style? (intro)

A
  1. Parent characteristics
    - Parent’s personality/temperament (getting angry0
  2. Child characteristics
    - Personality/temperament
  3. Culture
    - Gussi in Kenya (LeVine, 1994): short play periods (not too much fun), gaze aversion (mother looking away), emphasis on physical contact (holding touching, not eye contact/facial recognition)
    - -> explanations:
    - A quiet child is necessary for mother to return to work in the field and leave child with other children/women (easier when touching is enough to feel safe, compared to facial recognition)
    - Many children in the family, mother needs to provide attention to other children
34
Q

What are the 4 parenting styles and what differentiates them? (intro)

A

High vs. low responsiveness
High vs. low demandingness

Authoritative:

  • Result in most competent, independent, self-controlled, cooperative, achievement-oriented children
  • -> higher positive outcomes because:
    1. High emotional safety
    2. Providing explanations to children

Permissive:

  • Children often without goals, not assertive, not as performance oriented (because they are not used to demands and expectations from parents, so they don’t learn to set them themselves
  • Warmth

Authoritarian:

  • Children: more challenging, dependent, socially incompetent (often in boys)
  • Dependent because they’ve not had a lot of responsibility themselves and they are used to things being demanded to them (they have to do it, they don’t know why)

Neglectful:
- Most damaging consequences for cognitive and social-emotional development

35
Q

Explain the difference between behavioral and psychological control: (intro)

A

Behavioral control
= regulating a child by using strict but reasonable discipline and control
- Generally positive developmental outcomes

Psychological control
= regulating a child by not giving affection, inducing shame and guilt
- Leads to more depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, loneliness, antisocial behavior and delinquency

36
Q

What was the conclusion from the study of Taraban & Shaw on the Belsky model? (intro)

A
  • Evidence for simple model
  • But: we need to take into account more factors (parent characteristics: gender parent, cognition and affect of parents)

Revisited Model additions:

  • Parent characteristics (gender parent, cognition & affect of parents)
  • Family social environment (family structure, culture)
  • Child characteristics (stress response, genetics, emotion regulation)
  • Moderating pathways (e.g.: parent characteristics on parenting)
  • Inclusion of SES
37
Q

What is the Butterfly effect and what is the Matthew effect? Give an example of the Matthew effect on reading ability: (intro)

A

Butterfly effect (1961)

  • In general: Metaphor to indicate that a small difference can cause large, significant changes
  • In psychology: a small difference at the start can determine the course and outcome

Matthew effect:
= Effect of initial differences
“The rich get richer, the poor get poorer”

Example Matthew effect:

Children who fail at reading start disliking reading –> they read less then their peers –> they do not expand their vocabulary and knowledge –> limited vocabulary makes them understand less –> understanding less leads to reading failure –> they dislike reading and read less than their peers

38
Q

Name and explain the 2 dynamic system theories: (intro)

A
  1. Developmental systems approach
    - Epigenesis: the expression/activation of a gene depends on interaction with its environment (gene x environment)
    - There are complex interactions at different levels of the environment
    - Everything influences everything (see graph below)
    - Bottom-line: development is always an interaction between genes & environment

Example: genotype (genes) is a moderator between breastfeeding/not (environment) and IQ

  1. The Genetype -> Environment Theory (Scarr & McCartney)
    - “Genes drive experience”
    - > Because genotype parent and genotype child also predicts rearing environment child
    (e. g. child chooses rearing environment based on genes)
39
Q

What are the 3 type of effects of genotype –> environment and do they increase or decrease with age? (intro)

A
  1. Passive
    = Parents provide both genes and environment (genotype parents and rearing environment)
    - Decreases with age
  2. Evocative
    = Child characteristics elicits reactions from others (genotype child)
    - Stays constant with age
  3. Active
    = A child seeks an environment appropriate to its genotype
    - Increases with age
40
Q

What si the influence of SES on genes? (intro)

A

Influence of genes increases with SES

  • If you have a high SES, you can express your genes by choosing an environment that fits your genes
  • If you have a low SES, the environment is restricting the genes. They can’t be expressed because the environment can’t be selected in a way that fits the genes
41
Q

How do genes limit environment and how does environment limit gene expression? (intro)

A
  • Genes limit environment (breastfeeding, searching for environment that fits genotype)
  • Environment limits gene expression (SES can prevent you from selecting optimal environment)
42
Q

Explain hot and cool EF tasks: (EF)

A

Cool & hot EF = continuum
- How you perform in a cool task is a precondition for how you perform in a hot task

  1. Cool task/cool EF:
    - lab task
    - no emotion involved
    - Purely cognitive
    - Nothing at stake (no rewards, no evaluations)
  2. Hot EF:
    - Real life (like driving)
    - Involves social evaluation
    - Reward or something else at stake (social evaluation, exam, driving accident)
    - Often reported, not tested directly (difficult to test, because it concerns real life)
    - Often more difficult then cool tasks
43
Q

What are the 3 parts/processes of EF? (EF)

A

A. Inhibition
(suppression of responses/impulses)

B. Updating /working memory
(updating and monitoring information)

C. Shifting
(switching between tasks or mental sets), also called cognitive flexibility

44
Q

Explain the difference between interference control & behavioral inhibition: (EF)

A

Interference control = selective attention, cognitive inhibition
(e.g.: STROOP task)

Behavioral inhibition = suppression of response
(e.g.: Delay of Gratification task; MM-test)

45
Q

Give 2 explanations for the limited replication of results of the Delay of Gratification: (EF)

A
  1. MM-test measures more than inhibition/self-control:
    - Maybe it also tests other cognitive skills or intelligence. Cognitive skills are very predictive for later academic skills.
    - Traditional measures of early cognition are better predictors of later academic performance than MM-test
  2. Background factors 3rd variable:
    - Background factors (such as SES, education parents) are predictive of later academic performance of the children
46
Q

What are the 3 things the central executive (of working memory) gives direction to? (EF)

A
  1. Visuospatial sketchpath
    - Sketchpad where you put a visuospatial image
    - Has limited capacity
    - Simultaneous processing (as opposed to phonological loop)
    - Example: remember who ordered what drink in a bar when you are a waitress –> make an image and put it in your visuospatial sketchpad
  2. Episodic buffer
    - A space where info of visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop can be stored together with long-term information
    - Has limited capacity
    - What’s needed to combine info from different modes
    - Integration of multimodel information (visuospatial sketchpad & phonological loop), including long-term memory (LTM; has unlimited capacity)
    - LTM contains more and more info with development. That is why working memory is becoming more and more effective with development (the more you automatize procedures and the more knowledge you have –> the easier it is to remember information)
  3. Phonological loop
    - Where phonological, verbal information is stored
    - Has limited capacity
47
Q

What are the 3 pieces of evidence of the existence of the phonological loop? (EF)

A

Evidence of existence limited phonological loop:

  1. Phonological similarity effect
    = if letters are phonologically similar, it is more difficult to memorize them in the correct order
  2. Effect of word length
    = easier to remember ‘with, sum short, bag, on, up’ compared to ‘aluminum, multiply, radiator, keyboard’
  3. Effect of prohibition on pronunciation/Effect of impossibility of pronunciation
    - People try to verbalize information. When you can verbalize info, it is easier to remember.
  • Rakit test: easier to remember order of concrete blocks/forms (fish, butterfly, chair, apple; because they can verbalize the blocks) in comparison to abstract blocks/forms (random weird shapes)
48
Q

Explain the Rakit test: (EF)

A

Test for effect of impossibility on pronunciation of phonological loop.

Easier to remember order of concrete blocks/forms (fish, butterfly, chair, apple; because they can verbalize the blocks) in comparison to abstract blocks/forms (random weird shapes)

49
Q

Explain the concept of shifting and the DCCS & WCST: (EF)

A

= ability to adapt to a changing environment, switching between rules

  1. DCCS (Dimensional Change Card Sorting)
    - Pre-switch: Children are asked to sort tasks by colors
    - Post-switch (after 6 trials): Children are asked to change rule and sort by shape now

Explanations behavior of failing to switch:

  • Is it impossible for child to shift?
  • Working memory may be explanation: remember that the rules are different
  • Inhibition? Hard to suppress impulse

DCCS results:

  • 50% children have 0/1 trial correct, 50% have 5/6 trials correct (master the task)
  • Majority 4 years old masters the task
  • For 5 years old this is very easy
  • Children can say what the task/rule is, but they can’t perform it
  1. WCST: (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test)
    - sort card by feedback
    - after a number of correct trials sorting rule changes
    - Perseveration: if the old rule is adhered to (failing, sticking to old rule)
50
Q

What are the conclusions on uniqueness and internal consistency of EFs? (EF)

A
  • Interpretation of factors is not always easy
  • Factors are separated (in some studies), but they are still correlated (because EFs often go together in a task, such as working memory and inhibition)
  • There seem to be different developmental paths for different EFs
    • shifting develops up to 15y
    • working memory develops until 21y
  • Tasks are not pure measures of individual EFs
51
Q

How does school train EFs? (EF)

A

Efs addressed during regular tasks at school

  • Cooperation (inhibition, communication, perspective taking, shifting from own idea to others’
  • Using scarce material (be patient, wait for their turn)
  • Self-regulated learning (autonomy to child, monitor own process, keep goal in mind)
  • Pretend play (practice EF, switching between use of things (banana as phone), roleplay = perspective taking)

Extracurricular activities

  • Sports (martial arts): ask for selective attention, working memory, discipline, but also promotes fun, pride (fun & pride reliefs stress > good for EFs) and social skills
  • Mindfulness: concentration

–> Martial arts, sports, mindfulness = effective for EF
But results on effectiveness are still scarce (because we have some difficulty in finding out if it works)
- (Confound between high EF and extracurricular activities –> SES (the children who participate in martial arts are often used as participants and they have higher SES)

52
Q

Bernier study on promoting EF at home: (EF)

A

Measured:
- Maternal sensitivity:
mother gives appropriate and consistent responses to child
- Maternal mind mindedness:
use of mental terms (thinking, wishing, doubting) while talking to child
- Child cognitive capacity
- Maternal autonomy/scaffolding:
offer age-appropriate problem-solving strategies

Conclusion: all factors positively correlate with EF child

53
Q

How to promote EF in children? (EF)

A
  • Provide opportunities to practice EF
    (can be anything: dance, arts, social interaction, puzzles)
  • Investigate whether social and/or emotional problems prevent child from using EF
  • Talk about the mind (thinking, wishing, doubting, etc.)
  • Scaffolding
  • Provide tools (acknowledge that a child doesn’t have perfect EFs, give tools: talking stick for example)
54
Q

Explain Plato’s paradox and Chomsky’s view on language. (academics)

A

Plato’s paradox
- How can children learn language while it’s not being taught to them?
General Plato’s paradox: How is it possible to learn?

Chomsky’s explanation of language
Language acquisition must be something natural by children, must be driven by nature, because child is motivated to learn language and it is not taught to them. And universal grammars seem to exist  prove of nature.
- Deep structure inside human beings that drive language acquisition: underlying understanding of language, which enables child to learn language
- Specific language = surface structure
- There is a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in humans

55
Q

Explain the evidence of a critical period for language acquisition. (academics)

A
  • Deprivation of language baby/toddler: language deficiency that cannot be made up later
  • Second language learning is easiest up to 7 years
  • Quality of sign language best learned before 8y
  • Plasticity decreases with age (changes of brain regions)

–> something is happening between age 7-8  prove for critical period & LAD)

56
Q

Explain the “less is more hypothesis”. (academics)

A

Because children have simpler language, they learn the basics faster (because they don’t learn very difficult things).

  • children process main language elements and speak basic words
  • adults process too many language elements and too complex language, making them learn slow
57
Q

Name child factors and environmental factors promoting language acquisition. (academics)

A

Child factors:

  • Motivation
  • Extraverted child searches language
  • Introverted child observes well
  • Analytical ability, phonological awareness, working memory

Environmental factors:

  • Security
  • Exposure to target language
  • At home: preferred to use “good” different language at home than “poor” target (new/second) language (for kids to develop the new language)
58
Q

Name the principles of counting. (academics)

A
  • 1-to-1 principle (match one number to one unit)
  • Fixed, correct sequence of numbers (1,2,3,4,5 instead of: 1,2,3,5)
  • Cardinality principle: last number refers to the quantity (not a rhyme, it stands for quantity)
  • Principle of abstraction: all applies to any collection of units (you can count chairs, trees, thoughts)
  • Order-irrelevance: you may count units in any order (start with chair on the left or on the right doesn’t matter)
59
Q

Name the important concepts of number representation. (academics)

A

Number representation:

  • Enumeration: determining number of units in a set (how many people in this group picture?)
    handy to be able to do this, also from evolutionary point of view
  • Ordinality: whether numbers are more/less/equal
  • Subitizing: the ability to quickly and accurately determine the number of a small set of units (seeing a lot of dots in one second)
    • -> People with dyscalculia have difficulties with subitizing
60
Q

What are the 3 representations of numbers from the Triple Code Model of Dehaen? (academics)

A

There are 3 representations of numbers:

  1. Analogue (what you see) (=non-symbolic)
  2. Verbal (what you hear: “three”) (=symbolic)
  3. Visual (what it looks, written language) (=symbolic)

Symbolic = harder for children (we decided what the symbols are as humans).

61
Q

Explain the experiment of the Approximate Number System (ANS) and its conclusions. (academics)

A
  • Approximate Number System (ANS): ability to estimate the number of units in a set (non-symbolic)

Experiment:

  1. Non-symbolic: you see 2x an amount of dots –> say which one has more dots.
  2. Symbolic: you see 2 numbers –> say which one is higher.

Conclusions

  • Symbolic task harder for people with dyscalculia
  • The better the ANS the higher math performance? No, recent findings show that symbolic tasks are most important predictor of math performance
62
Q

Explain the home numeracy effect and give an example. (academics)

A

Home numeracy effect: How much parents provide numerical activities in the home.

(e.g.: talk about time with clocks and calendars, asking about quantities, singing counting songs, encouraging collecting (cards, rocks, etc.))

  • -> example home numeracy: board games
  • Chutes & ladders: children at disadvantage who played chutes & ladders showed progress in numeracy skills :)
63
Q

What 3 cognitive skills are necessary for math? (academics)

A
  1. Working memory
  2. Inhibition (e.g. multiplying, adding)
  3. Morsanyi: Ordering (not only numbers but also days of the year, events in the year)
    • -> ability in ordering predicts math performance (so ordering is a basic cognitive skill necessary for math performance)
64
Q

What 3 factors contribute to learning math? (academics)

A
  1. Early maths skills (ANS & symbolic tasks)
  2. Conservation of number
    - Density and length correlated with number
    - (drawing a number line –> increases with age, is important for math performance)
    - Children take much more space for small numbers and make more mistakes in big numbers –> shows that they know the small numbers better)
  3. Home numeracy effect.
65
Q

Explain the Math Garden study and its results and conclusions. (academics)

A

Design:

  • 4 conditions: easy level (90% chance correct answers), medium level (75%), difficult level (60%), control (no practice in Rekentuin)
  • 207 kids (age 8-13, group 5-8)
  • 6 weeks intervention between pretest and posttest
  • Math Anxiety Scale for Children, Perceived Math Competence Scale, Tempotest Automatisering

Results:

  • No difference in perceived math competence between conditions or at all
  • Math anxiety was lower at the posttest, but no differences in conditions and children were anxious at pretest (because of adult, experiment, lab environment), so this could just mean relief/familiarism at the end of experiment.
  • Performance part (addition subtraction): improved performance at all conditions. Rekentuin conditions more improvement than control condition. The easier the level (condition), the more performance increase.
Mediation analysis:
-	They saw that the easier the level, the more problems solved, so mediation analysis of mediator “number of problems with attempt (hoevaak geoefend)”.
Results:
-	Mediator significant
-	Girls > boys (they don’t know why)

Conclusion research

  • The higher success –> the more practice –> the higher improvement in math
  • But no effect for math anxiety and self-concept
  • -> suggests experience of success is important for children!
66
Q

Vygotsky’s view & ZPD: (social relations)

A

All development is through social interactions and socio-cultural context.

  • Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the place where the child will excel and develop, space between what the child can do and what it can’t do. What the child can do/ learn with help.
  • Elementary mental functions = memory, sensation etc. –> higher mental functions (sophisticated strategies)
  • Role of joint involvement episodes: parents use scaffolding techniques (how to study better, split in chunks etc.)
67
Q

Social Learning Theory Bandura: (social relations)

A
  • Learning through observation (social models)

ARRM

  1. Attention (factors influencing the amount of attention paid to the model) –>
  2. Retention (factors influencing the cognitive organization of observation in memory) –>
  3. Reproduction (factors influencing ability to reproduce behavior) –>
  4. Motivation (factors influencing the motivation to reproduce behavior)

Voorbeeld:
1. Attention
(kind ziet iemand overdreven reageren op pijn arm en aandacht vragen waardoor docent veel aandacht geeft)
2. Retention
(kind is oud genoeg om dit door te hebben en slaat het op in zijn geheugen)
3. Reproduction
(kind heeft ToM en kan dit dus nadoen, weet hoe het moet)
4. Motivation
(kind wil ook aandacht dus heeft motivatie om dit sociale gedrag na te doen)

68
Q

Social information processing theory: (social relations)

A
  • Used when explaining aggression
  • (all phases are influenced by mental state)

EIRRE
1. encoding: a cue attenting to a certain cue (you see something)

  1. interpretation: attribution of intent (iemand kijkt naar me –> vindt me leuk/vindt me lelijk of iemand doet iets expres of zonder bedoeling)
  2. response search
  3. response decision: decision based on goals, previous experience, self-efficacy and expected results
  4. enactment (doen)
69
Q

Name the 4 stages of empathy development of Hoffman. (social relations)

A
  1. Global empathy:
    others not seen as distinct, another distress = own feeling
  2. Egocentric empathy:
    aware of other’s distress, others internal state seen as own
  3. Empathy for another’s feelings:
    aware that other’s feelings are not own, child responds to these in non-egocentric ways
  4. Empathy for another’s life condition:
    other’s feelings seen as expression of their life experiences. Empathic affect & mental representations of other’s condition
70
Q

Name and explain the 4 types of play. (social relations)

A

NPAC

  1. Non-social play (6-12m):
    playing alone, paying no attention to other people. Everyone’s doing their own thing.
  2. Parallel play (1jaar):
    Children play the same activity next to each other, but they don’t play together (all drawing, but on their own table, not together).
  3. Associative play (1-2j?):
    Children play the same game (1 game), they communicate, ask each other simple questions, but they don’t work together.
  4. Cooperative play (2.5-3j):
    Children work together in one game, share with each other, following rules and guidelines (roleplay i.e.: vader en moedertje)
71
Q

Explain the Issue of Causality and the research by Dodge & Coyle. (social relations)

A

Issue of causality:
Are kids with more social characteristics more popular or do children who are excluded develop less social competence?

  • -> we don’t know because the data is cross-sectional (no causal relationships)
  • Hard to test because then you would need to experiment on kids and follow them before they meet their peers etc. to see what happens in groups.

But research suggests:

  • Dodge et al: child characteristics were assessed before new groups were formed and there was a follow-up of child popularity over time
  • -> results: evidence for causal role of initial personality differences
  • Coie, Dodge: Circular influence is likely and may be responsible for high stability in peer acceptance over time.
    Circular influence: (personality makes kid rejected –> rejected means less social development and social skills –> kid can’t mingle and stays rejected –> less social development etc.)
  • Rubin: rejected children most stable (stay rejected, difficult to get out of)
72
Q

Name the 5 trajectories of Loneliness and the most important findings. (social relations)

A

5 trajectories of loneliness (Schinka; measured at age 9, 11, 15):

  1. Stable and low levels of loneliness (most children fall in this group, same over 3 years)
  2. Moderate increasing loneliness
  3. High increasing loneliness
  4. Decreasing loneliness
  5. Chronic loneliness (12%, predicted: low social skills, depression, aggression and suicidal ideation at age 15)  so should be prevented, paid attention to!
73
Q

Explain the study by Matthews on loneliness. (social relations)

A

Matthews:

  • Susceptibility (gevoeligheid) to feeling lonely found in people who were lonely in childhood
  • Seeking social connecting because it gives a sense of safety (evolutionary models)
  • Adverse/negative peer experiences earlier in life (bijv: victimization)
  • Genetics taken into account

Findings:

  • Dose-response relationship: More a child was bullied in childhood, the more loneliness they experience later in life
  • Being a victim of bullying in childhood associated with loneliness (staat los van/take into account psychopathology, social isolation, genetic risk)
  • Being a victim of bullying in childhood predicted loneliness in young adulthood (even when bullying/victimization stopped after a while in childhood)
74
Q

Explain the dose-response relationship. (social relations)

A

More a child was bullied in childhood, the more loneliness they experience later in life

CDP (2 decks)

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