Lecture 5: Intelligence

Question 1

What are 3 important things when it comes to the origin of differences in intelligence?

Answer 1

1. Interaction nature x nurture produces intelligent behavior
2. Transactions are essential: parents change child behavior, but child also changes parents behavior
3. Development is a continuous and reciprocal interaction between child with biological disposition and changing environment

Question 2

What 4 factors are involved in the genotype->environment theory and which one influences which? (by Scarr & McCartney)

Answer 2

1. Child’s genotype (influences phenotype child and child rearing environment)
2. Phenotype child (influences child rearing environment)
3. Genotype parents (influences child’s genotype and child rearing environment)
4. Child rearing environment (influences phenotype of child)

Question 3

What is the basketball-analogy used for?

Explain the basketball-analogy.

Answer 3

It is used as an example of the individual multiplier effect.

Basketball-analogy:

• Bo & Mo
• Bo slightly taller –> asked to join good basketball team –> gets better and better –> enjoys it and plays more –> gets better
• Mo slightly shorter –> gets into a worse basketball team –> only plays basketball at school –> lower level than Bo

Question 4

Individual multiplier effect

Answer 4

A small difference in nature becomes bigger and bigger when multiplied by nurture (by (self-)selecting environment that encourages innate differences)

–> upward spiral by: exercise, environment, opportunities

Basketball-analogy is an example of the individual multiplier effect.

Question 5

Social multiplier effect + example

Answer 5

Social multipliers make the difference between groups and generations (nature x nurture of a group)

Group:
Chess example: school starts chess club –> attract children and parents who like chess –> more time spent playing –> kids learn from each other –> school gets better at chess than other schools

Generation:
Breakdance example: breakdancing becomes an Olympic sport –> breakdance more popular –> this generation gets better at breakdancing.

–> So mainly nurture (popularity makes people breakdance), but also nature as the one with talent has the greatest chance of becoming the best.

Question 6

Flynn effect

Answer 6

Increase of IQ points with each generation (may be because of attention to cognitive development).

Question 7

What may be an explanation for the Flynn effect?

Answer 7

Increasing attention to cognitive development.

We stimulate intelligence in children:

• Educational toys (such as building blocks for counting)
• Multipliers in the environment

Question 8

Cumulative deficit effect

Answer 8

Multiple risks persisting over many years add up

= comparable to negative individual multiplier

Question 9

What were the 3 main results from Sameroff?

Answer 9

1. More risk factors (premature birth, low SES, etc.) –> lower IQ
2. Risk factors added up: if you have one risk factor, you’re likely to have more
3. Downward spiral: hard to overcome a risk factor, because it’s often associated with another risk factor

Question 10

Are individual differences in intelligence often general or specific?

Answer 10

They are often general,

so if someone scores high on 1 onderdeel van WISC IQ test, they also score high on the other parts of the WISC IQ test

Question 11

What is the criticism on the g-factor (general intelligence factor, mental power) by Spearman?

Answer 11

1. It’s not theoretical
2. No developmental model, how does it work?
3. Where is g?
4. What is g?

Homunculus problem: G explanation seems economical but introduces invisible force (about which can’t be talked about any further)

Question 12

Mutualism

Answer 12

Positive influence of cognitive modules (/internal characteristics) on each other
(if you can read, this makes you gain more knowledge and then you’re also better at other things)

E.g.: better memory strategies –> better reading comprehension –> more knowledge –> easier to remember things

Question 13

How can stereotypes be self-fulfilling?

Answer 13

Endorsing (bevestigen) stereotype influences and is influenced by:

• affective, motivational (self-image, emotions, goal-orientation, mindset)
• behavior (involved in a task, effort paid in a task)
• performance

Question 14

Cognitive development is not possible without (2):

Answer 14

1. Self-esteem (considering yourself capable)
2. Academic emotions: evoked by:
   - value attached to an academic task (I think this is important/this is worthless evokes different emotion)
   - perceived control (how much do you feel in control (has to do with self-esteem, capability, enjoyment)

Academic emotions –> can activate and deactivate children’s behavior
e.g.: He’s bored –> he will not put much effort in school task vs. He is happy –> he will put more effort in school task

Question 15

Entity theory

Answer 15

You think intelligence is fixed unit (fixed mindset).

Question 16

Incremental theory

Answer 16

You think intelligence is changeable (growth mindset).

Question 17

Implicit theories are often related to (4):

Answer 17

1. Goals orientation (mastery vs. performance approach, avoidance vs. approach orientation
2. Importance attached to effort (if you think you can change something, you will make more effort and other way around)
3. Attribution to errors (whether you think failure is due to a lack of effort or lack of talent)
4. Learning approach (superficial learning vs. deep learning approach)

Question 18

What were the main results of the study of Blackwell?

Answer 18

Study of children in transition to secondary school (middelbare)

Results:
- Children with an incremental theory gradually scored higher on math grades compared to children with a entity theory over the years.

Conclusion:
- The more incremental theory (growth mindset) –> better the learning goals (strategies) & more positive effort beliefs (if I put effort, I can do it).

Question 19

Name the 4 affective and motivational variables of intelligence:

Answer 19

1. Endorsing stereotype
2. Self-esteem, emotions, goal-orientation, mindset
3. Involved effort
4. Performance

Question 20

What are Ceci & Kaufman’s ideas on the stability and hereditary of intelligence?

Answer 20

Ceci: life experiences and school-related experiences change brain & IQ in adults and children –> so not completely hereditary

Kaufman: IQ is always about a rank order (compared to others). It can’t be stable. Intelligence tests differ –> IQ result is unreliable.

Question 21

At around what age is rank position stable and how long can you use an IQ score for at what age?

Answer 21

Rank position is stable from around 6 years old.

You can use IQ score (it stays stable) for how long (validity IQ scores):

• Before 5y old: max. half year
• 5-13y old: 1 years
• 13y+ old: max 2 years

Question 22

What are the 3 explanations for the increase of heredity on IQ with age?

Answer 22

1. People select own environment when they grow older
2. Some genes are switched on later
3. Decrease in factor family/shared environment is explained by the decreasing influence of parents as kids grow older

Question 23

Closet example

Answer 23

Even when environment is the same, genes make a difference.

The example: children locked up in closet together –> they don’t learn a lot compared to being in school, but there are differences in intelligence in children after being freed –> this must be explained by difference in genes)

Question 24

What is Gardner’s theory and what is the evidence?

Answer 24

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences:

There are different types of intelligences:

• music smart
• body smart
• self smart
• nature smart
• people smart
• word smart
• logic smart
• picture smart

Everyone is good at something –> attractive theory to parents and teachers.

There is no convincing evidence for Gardner’s theory.

Question 25

What are the conditions for a school effectiveness study (5)?

Answer 25

1. Experimental (intervention) group vs. control group
2. Baseline measurement (test children in advance before they go to school on IQ/EQ e.g.)
3. Random allocation to group (hard, because parents want to decide where their kid goes to school of course)
4. Groups must be equal in all background variables (SES, etc.)
5. Gardner approach (intervention) should be the only difference between groups

Conclusion school effectiveness: answering question/doing research is very hard/impossible.

Question 26

What are results from studies on the effect of school on IQ?

Answer 26

1. Correlation between number of school years and IQ (corrected for SES)
2. IQ drop during school holidays
3. IQ drop in kids who do not attend school consistently (truancy, illness)
4. Starting school later –> lower IQ
5. Dropout –> lower IQ

Question 27

School aims to (4):

Answer 27

• Increase motivation
• Instruct what is not learned independently
• Provide additional guidance to “weak” children (children in need)
• Stimulate gifted children

Question 28

In what way is school a compensation effect for children?

Answer 28

• School teaches skills that can affect other skills (mutualistic relationships: if you gain more knowledge it’s easier to read, etc.).
• School prevents that a disadvantage is multiplied by a disadvantageous environment. So school is very important to prevent negative spiral (individual multiplier effect).

So school is a compensation effect (providing great environment for kids who tend to spiral down).