Revision (content from lecture #2) Flashcards
DEF Problem
Problems arise when we have a goal but do not know how to do it
- no obvious solution
- need to think to progress from existing solution to desired goal.
Problem Solving is a:
A process
- problem representation
- Problem solution
- planning, execution,
monitoring
-directed by goals
-personal5 steps to problem solving:
- Clearly define the problem
- Consider Alternatives
- Gather relevant information
- Compare and Contrast options
- Evaluate outcome
Force field analysis
- Driving forces- pros
- Restraining forces- cons, preventing you implementing the change
→ For change to occur one of those forces either need to strengthen or weaken.
→ rate forces between 1 to 5 in terms of importance
→ Same total for both= equilibrium= change one of the forces
→ lower total= weaker
Barriers to problem solving:
- Mental set
- persistent use of strategies that have worked in the past
- specific problem requires specific strategy
Barriers to problem solving:
- Functional Fixedness
Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
–> Can only use a pen to write when it can also have other functions
Divergent Thinking
Thinking outside the box
Flexible
Producing many and varied ideas
Defer judgement (go back later to rate options)
Convergent Thinking
Ability to apply appropriate rules
Attempt to find single best answer
Conventional, non creative thinking
Perceiving
Process of becoming aware of the world through our senses
Actively select, organize, and interpret sensations
Perception influences beliefs
Beliefs influence perception
→ bidirectional belief
Selection
How do we deal with bombardment
Limited range Eg. range of hearing
Selective attention
- see
- feel
- hear
- taste
- smell
perception is an active process:
- Select, organise, interpret
- Performed quickly automatically and often simultaneously
- Our existing knowledge of the world can influence what we see. Eg. Size constancy
People’s perception differ
- Two people can be viewing the same event but seeing different things
- Our past experiences influence our current perceptions
- Everything that is unique to us as individuals act like lenses (or filters) that select and shape what we perceive
– Occurs without awareness.
Eg. perception of football
Perception and believing
Thinking critically about our perceptions allows us to formulate beliefs and ultimately construct our knowledge about the world
- Perceptions, by themselves, are not reliable foundations on which to base our beliefs!
- Perceiving is an essential part of the thinking process
DEF belief
Interpretation, evaluation, conclusion, or prediction about the world that we endorse as true
Belief (interpretation)
An explanation or analysis of the meaning or significance of something
Belief (evaluation)
A judgement of the value or quality of something, based on certain standards
Belief (Conclusion)
A decision made or an opinion formed after consideration of the facts and evidence
Belief (Prediction)
A statement about what will happen in the future
Types of beliefs
- Reports
Reporting factual information that can be verified through investigation - Inferences
- Describing the world in ways based on factual information yet going beyond this information to make statements about what is currently unknown
- Adding meaning, most likely past on past experiences
- Judgements
Describing the world in ways that express your evaluation based on certain criteria
How to resolve differences in judgements by being a critical thinker?
Make explicit the criteria or standards used as a basis for the judgments
Try to establish reasons that justify these criteria
Evaluating Sources
Questioning your inferences:
- Confirmation bias
- Where we tend to seek evidence that supports our current belief
Consider counter examples:
- When making judgements based on criteria, it’s a good idea to consider counterexamples
- Eg. “all fast foods are unhealthy” → “Many fast foods are unhealthy”
Seek informed sources:
- For the best information about global climate change, go to climate change scientists
- Sources must be qualified to make the statements they make
-- Appropriate background,
training, experience
- Bad source
- My next door neighbour
read on the internet that
vaccinating children
causes autism → I better
not vaccinate my kids
- Good Source
-- A scientific review by the institute of medicine concluded that “the evidence favours rejection of a causal relationship between thimerosal- containing vaccines and autism.”
Seek impartial sources:
- People who have the most at stake in a dispute are usually not the best sources of information about the issues involved
—> Impartial sources
People/organisations who do not have a stake in the immediate issue
Primary interest in accuracy
E.g., University scientists
