Revision (content from lecture #2)

Question 1

DEF Problem

Answer 1

Problems arise when we have a goal but do not know how to do it

• no obvious solution
• need to think to progress from existing solution to desired goal.

Question 2

Problem Solving is a:

Answer 2

A process
  - problem representation
  - Problem solution
    - planning, execution,
      monitoring 
-directed by goals
-personal

Question 3

5 steps to problem solving:

Answer 3

• Clearly define the problem
• Consider Alternatives
• Gather relevant information
• Compare and Contrast options
• Evaluate outcome

Question 4

Force field analysis

Answer 4

• Driving forces- pros
• Restraining forces- cons, preventing you implementing the change

→ For change to occur one of those forces either need to strengthen or weaken.
→ rate forces between 1 to 5 in terms of importance
→ Same total for both= equilibrium= change one of the forces
→ lower total= weaker

Question 5

Barriers to problem solving:

- Mental set

Answer 5

• persistent use of strategies that have worked in the past

- specific problem requires specific strategy

Question 6

Barriers to problem solving:

- Functional Fixedness

Answer 6

Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
–> Can only use a pen to write when it can also have other functions

Question 7

Divergent Thinking

Answer 7

Thinking outside the box
Flexible
Producing many and varied ideas
Defer judgement (go back later to rate options)

Question 8

Convergent Thinking

Answer 8

Ability to apply appropriate rules
Attempt to find single best answer
Conventional, non creative thinking

Question 9

Perceiving

Answer 9

Process of becoming aware of the world through our senses

Actively select, organize, and interpret sensations

Perception influences beliefs
Beliefs influence perception
→ bidirectional belief

Question 10

Selection

Answer 10

How do we deal with bombardment

Limited range Eg. range of hearing

Question 11

Selective attention

Answer 11

• see
• feel
• hear
• taste
• smell

Question 12

perception is an active process:

Answer 12

• Select, organise, interpret
• Performed quickly automatically and often simultaneously
• Our existing knowledge of the world can influence what we see. Eg. Size constancy

Question 13

People’s perception differ

Answer 13

• Two people can be viewing the same event but seeing different things
• Our past experiences influence our current perceptions
• Everything that is unique to us as individuals act like lenses (or filters) that select and shape what we perceive
  – Occurs without awareness.
  Eg. perception of football

Question 14

Perception and believing

Answer 14

Thinking critically about our perceptions allows us to formulate beliefs and ultimately construct our knowledge about the world

• Perceptions, by themselves, are not reliable foundations on which to base our beliefs!
• Perceiving is an essential part of the thinking process

Question 15

DEF belief

Answer 15

Interpretation, evaluation, conclusion, or prediction about the world that we endorse as true

Question 16

Belief (interpretation)

Answer 16

An explanation or analysis of the meaning or significance of something

Question 17

Belief (evaluation)

Answer 17

A judgement of the value or quality of something, based on certain standards

Question 18

Belief (Conclusion)

Answer 18

A decision made or an opinion formed after consideration of the facts and evidence

Question 19

Belief (Prediction)

Answer 19

A statement about what will happen in the future

Question 20

Types of beliefs

Answer 20

• Reports
  Reporting factual information that can be verified through investigation
• Inferences
• • Describing the world in ways based on factual information yet going beyond this information to make statements about what is currently unknown
• • Adding meaning, most likely past on past experiences
• Judgements
  Describing the world in ways that express your evaluation based on certain criteria

Question 21

How to resolve differences in judgements by being a critical thinker?

Answer 21

Make explicit the criteria or standards used as a basis for the judgments

Try to establish reasons that justify these criteria

Question 22

Evaluating Sources

Answer 22

Questioning your inferences:

• Confirmation bias
  
  • Where we tend to seek evidence that supports our current belief

Consider counter examples:

• When making judgements based on criteria, it’s a good idea to consider counterexamples
• Eg. “all fast foods are unhealthy” → “Many fast foods are unhealthy”

Seek informed sources:
- For the best information about global climate change, go to climate change scientists 
- Sources must be qualified to make the statements they make
    -- Appropriate background, 
       training, experience 
- Bad source
    - My next door neighbour 
       read on the internet that 
        vaccinating children 
       causes autism → I better 
       not vaccinate my kids 
- Good Source
   -- A scientific review by the institute of medicine concluded that “the evidence favours rejection of a causal relationship between thimerosal- containing vaccines and autism.”

Seek impartial sources:
- People who have the most at stake in a dispute are usually not the best sources of information about the issues involved

—> Impartial sources
People/organisations who do not have a stake in the immediate issue
Primary interest in accuracy
E.g., University scientists