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Revision Flashcards

1
Q

Negative feedback

A
  1. blood pressure drops
  2. brain detects change, signals heart to inc HR + constrict blood vessels
  3. pressure restored
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2
Q

Positive feedback

A
  1. blood pressure drops
  2. blood flow to heart dec
  3. heart unable to pump enough blood to maintain pressure
  4. blood flow to cardiac muscles decrease
  5. pressure decreases further
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3
Q

CNS

A
  • brain and spinal cord

- intergrative and control centres

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4
Q

PNS

A
  • cranial nerves and spinal nerves

- communication lines between the CNS and rest of body

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5
Q

sensory (afferent) div

A
  • somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibres

- conducts impulses form receptors to the CNS

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6
Q

motor (efferent) division

A
  • motor nerve fibres

- conducts impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)

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7
Q

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A
  • visceral motor (involuntary)

- conducts impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles and glands

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8
Q

Somatic nervous system

A
  • somatic motor (voluntary)

- conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles

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9
Q

Sympathetic division

A
  • mobilises body systems during activity
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10
Q

Parasympathetic division

A
  • conserves energy

- promotes housekeeping functions during rest

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11
Q
  1. local potentials
A
  • usually generated in the neurons dendrites accumulate and reach the trigger zone of the axon
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12
Q
  1. action potential
A
  • trigger zone depolarises to threshold and generates an AP
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13
Q

action potential propagation

A
  • the AP is propagated down the axon to the axon terminals
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14
Q

astrocyte

A
  • anchor neurons and blood vessels
  • regulate extracellular environment
  • facilitate formation of blood brain barrier
  • repair damaged tissue
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15
Q

ogliodendrocyte

A
  • myelinate certain axons in CNS
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16
Q

microglial cell

A
  • act as phagocyte
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17
Q

ependymal cell

A
  • line cavities
  • cilia circulate fluid around brain and spinal cord
  • some secrete this fluid
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18
Q

absolute refractory period

A

membrane potential -70→ 30

  • Na+ channels activated
  • K+ channels activating slowly

30 → -70

  • Na+ channels inactivated
  • K+ channels avtivated
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19
Q

relative refractory period

A
  • Na+ channels in resting state

- K+ channels remain activated

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20
Q

acetylcholine

A
  • acetyl-CoA & choline
  • excitatory
  • CNS: brain and spinal cord
  • PNS: neuromuscular junction and ANS
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21
Q

catecholamines (norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine)

A
  • tyrosine
  • excitatory
  • CNS: brain and spinal cord
  • PNS: ANS (symp. div)
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22
Q

AP propagation - myelinated axons

A
  • more energy sufficient - reliable
  • SALATORY CONDUCTION: insilating prop. of myelin sheath inc. efficiency & speed
  • AP propagates from 1 node of ranvier to next by generating currents that open ion channels
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23
Q

AP propagation - unmyelinated axons

A
  • passive, slow & unreliable
  • ionic current flows across each adjacent segment of membrane
  • step by step depolarisation & repolarisation of each voltage gated ion channel in membrane
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24
Q

Cerebrum

A
  • frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes

- higher mental functions

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25
Q

diencephalon

A
  • thalamus, hypothalamus, epi & sub thalamus

- maintains HOMEOSTASIS

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26
Q

cerebellum

A
  • coordination & movement
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27
Q

brainstem

A
  • diencephalon, midbrain, pons, & medulla oblongata

- helps maintain homeostasis, responsible for some reflexes

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28
Q

Sympathetic nerve fibres

A
  • thoracic and lumbar spinal cord
  • short preganglioic: acetylcholine
  • long postganglionic: norepinephrine
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29
Q

Parasympathetic nerve fibres

A
  • brainstem or sacral spinal corn
  • long preganglionic
  • short postganglionic
  • both acetylcholine
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30
Q

spinal cord and reflex arc

A
  1. PNS detects stimulus and delivers stimulus to CNS
  2. CNS integrates information
  3. PNS delivers motor response to effector organs
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31
Q

pulmonary circuit

A
  • right side of heart receives deoxygenated blood from body & pumps to lung for gas exchange
  • oxygenated blood returns to left side of heart
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32
Q

systemic circuit

A
  • left side of heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps to body
  • deoxygenated blood returns to right side of heart
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33
Q

heart conducting system 1

A

Sinoatrial (SA) node generates an action potential, which spreads to atrial cells and the atrioventricular (AV) node

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34
Q

heart conducting system 2

A

After AV node delay, the AP is conducted to the AV bundle then to right and left branches

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35
Q

heart conducting system 3

A

AP spreads from the bundle branches along the Purkinje fibres to the contractile cells of the ventricles

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36
Q

P wave

A

atrial depolarisation

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37
Q

QRS complex

A

ventricular depolarisation (masking atrial repolarisation)

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38
Q

T wave

A

ventricular repolarisation

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39
Q

R-R interval

A

entire duration of a cardiac AP

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40
Q

P-R interval

A

duration of atrial repolarisation and AV node delay

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41
Q

Q-T interval

A

entire duration of a ventricular AP

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42
Q

Preload

A
  • length or degree of stretch of sarcomeres in ventricular cells before they contract
  • determined by vol of blood coming in from the pulmonary
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43
Q

Frank-starling law

A

increased ventricular muscle cells stretch, leads to more forceful contraction

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44
Q

afterload

A
  • force that right and left ventricles must overcome in order to eject blood into respective arteries
  • determined by pressure in systemic circuit
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45
Q

contractility

A
  • hearts intrinsic pumping ability, or ability to generate tension
  • determined by the heart’s intrinsic pumping ability
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46
Q

systemic blood pressure

A
  • pumping of heart generates blood flow
  • pressure arises from resistance
  • systemic BP is highest in the aorta and declines until it reaches 0 at the right atrium
  • most pronounced change in BP occurs in arterioles
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47
Q

factors regulating blood pressure - peripheral resistance

A

Peripheral resistance

  • blood vessel length
  • vessel diametre
  • blood viscosity
  • obstruction in vessels
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48
Q

Response to low BP & vol

A
  • Sympathetic nerve fibres release epinephrine and norepinephrine
  • ADH & renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system (RAAS) help inc BP & vol
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49
Q

response to high BP & vol

A
  • sympathetic input to heart and blood vessel is inhibited

- ANP reduces BP & vol

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50
Q

Type I alveolar cells

A

90% of cells in alveolar wall,

- very thin → allows for RAPID diffusion of gases → huge surface area; inc gas exc efficiency

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51
Q

Type II alveolar cells

A
  • 10% of the cells - synthesis of SURFACTANT → reduces surface tensions on alveoli
52
Q

Macrophages

A

mobile phagocytes derived from bone marrow; clean up & digest derbris that made its way into alveolus

53
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A
  • inspiratory muscles contract
  • thoracic vol inc
  • lung vol inc
  • interapulmonary pressure decreases to below atmospheric pressure
  • air flows into lungs
54
Q

Boyle’s law

A

Relationship between pressure and volume

55
Q

Dalton’s law

A
  • Law of partial pressures

- Total pressure = sum of all partial pressure of a gaseous mixture

56
Q

Henry’s law

A

Degree to which a gas dissolves in a liquid is proportional to both its partial pressure and its solubility in liquid

57
Q

Charles’ law

A

When temp inc. so does pressure of a gas

58
Q

Response to inc. aretrial P CO2

A
  • CO2 and/or H+ inc above normal range
  • central chemoreceptors detect inc. in PCO2and/or H+
  • chemoreceptors relay info to the DRG which stimulates VRG
  • VRG triggers hyper-ventilation & additional CO2 is lost
59
Q

skeletal muscle

A

contractions move body by pulling on bones - voluntary

60
Q

cardiac muscle tissu

A

contractions in heart propel blood through vessels

61
Q

smooth muscle tissue

A

contractions move fluids and solids along digestive tract and regulate the diametres of small arteries

62
Q

Excitation-contraction coupling

A
  1. end-plate potential stimulates an action potential
  2. the AP is propagated down T-tubules
  3. T-tubule depolatisation leads to opening of Ca2+ channls in SR, Ca2+ enter the cytosol
63
Q

ATP and the powerstroke 1

A
  1. energy from ATP breakdown places myosin into loaded or ‘cocked’ position
64
Q

ATP and the powerstroke 2

A
  1. myosin head binds to active sites
65
Q

ATP and the powerstroke 3

A
  1. ADP+P is released from myosin head causeing ‘powerstroke’ where myosin head uses stored energy to return to resting position
66
Q

ATP and the powerstroke 4

A
  1. ATP attaches to myosin head, detaching from active site
67
Q

ATP and the powerstroke 5

A
  1. attached ATP is then broken down/ hydrolysed to place the myosin head back into loaded position
68
Q

Excitation

A

ACh triggers an end-plate potential in the motor end-plate

69
Q

excitation-contraction coupling

A

resulting AP in the sarcolemma travels down the T-tubules and triggers Ca2+ release from the SR into cytosol

70
Q

prep for contraction

A

Ca2+ bind to troponin, which moves tropomyosin away from active sites of actin

71
Q

contraction

A
  • actin and myosin bind, and myosin undergoes a powerstroke

- ATP detaches actin and myosin, and the cycle repeasts, leading to contraction of the muscle fibre

72
Q

relaxation

A
  • neurons stops releasing ACh, and the AChE degreades the ACh in the synaptic cleft
  • cytosolic conc. of Ca2+ returns to the resting level. active sites of actin are blocked, muscle fibre relaxes
73
Q

mechanisms of action - hydrophilic

A
  1. hydrophilic hormone (1st messenger) binds to its receptor in the plasma membrane
  2. receptor activates a peripheral protein
  3. peripheral protein activates an enzyme
  4. enzyme catalyses formation of a second messenger
  5. second messenger initiates a series of events in the cell that leads to changes in its activity
74
Q

mechanisms of action - hydrophobic

A
  1. hydrophobic hormone diffuses into the target cell
  2. hormone binds to an intracellular receptor and enters the nucleus of the cell
  3. hormone-receptor complex interacts with the DNA to initiate a cellular change
75
Q

Regulation of hormone secretion - hormonal stimuli

A
  • growth hormone-releasing (GHRH) stimulates secretion of growth hormone (GH) from an anterior pituitary cell
  • HORMONAL INHIBITION: somatosatin inhibits secretion of growth hormone from an anterior pituitary cell
76
Q

Regulation of hormone secretion - humoral stimulus

A

Glucose uptake by a pancreatic cell triggers insulin secretion

77
Q

Regulation of hormone secretion - neural stimulus

A

Sympathetic neruons stimulate secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine from an adrenal medulla cell

78
Q

Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland FB

A
  • 1st cont: hypothalamus releases hormones
  • 2nd cont: anterior pituitary releases hormone
  • 3rd cont: target organs release hormones
  • effects:
    hormone lvl inc.
    effects on other cells - return to normal range
79
Q

Thyroid and parathyroid glands FB

A
  • stimulus: exposure to cold
  • receptor: receptors in hypothalamus detect change
  • 1st cont : hypothalamus release TRH
  • 2nd cont: anterior pituitary secretes TSH
  • 3rd cont: Produce T3& T4/ secrete T3&T4 in blood
  • effects: increased levels of T3&T4 in blood → inc metabolic rate
80
Q

thymus

A

Releases thyroid hormones (T3, T4, cell growth & protein production) and CALCITONIN (reduces blood calcium levels)

81
Q

parathyroid gland

A

releases PARATHYROID HORMONE (inc blood calcium levels)

82
Q

Adrenal glands - CORTISOL

A

increase nutrients in blood stream

83
Q

Adrenal glands - ALDOSTERONE

A

increase sodium reabsorption in kidney

84
Q

Adrenal glands - ANDROGENIC STEROIDS

A

can affect gonads and other tissues

85
Q

Adrenal glands - EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE

A

sympathetic effects

86
Q

Blood glucose regulation - insulin

A
  • stimulus: Blood glucose level rises
  • beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood
    → INSULIN
  • liver takes up glucose and stores as glycogen
  • blood glucose level decline
87
Q

proximal convoluted tubule

A
  • reabsorb nutrients from filtrate
88
Q

Loop of henle

A
  • establishment of an osmotic gradient in renal medulla

- gradient promotes water reabsorption

89
Q

distal convoluted tubule

A
  • makes adjustments to tubular fluid composition → combination of secretion and reabsorption
90
Q

collecting duct

A
  • carries tubular fluid through the osmotic gradient in renal medulla
91
Q

papillary duct

A
  • collects tubular fluid from multiple collecting ducts and delivers to a minor calyx
92
Q

Glomerular filtration rate

A

NET FILTRATION PRESSURE (NFP)

  1. glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP)
  2. glomerular colloid osmotic pressure (GCOP)
  3. capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP) - generated
93
Q

Regulation of glomerular filtration rate - autoregulation

A
  • myogenic and tubuloglomerular FB sys.
94
Q

regulation of glomerular filtration rate - central regulation

A
  • RAAS & sympathetic nerve input
95
Q

RAAS SYSTEM

A
  1. drop in BP & fluid vol
  2. liver releases angiotensinogen
  3. renin relase from kidney
  4. renin acts on angiotensinogen to form ANGIOTENSIN I
  5. ACE (angiotensin-converting enxyme) release from lungs
  6. ACE acts on angiotensin I to form ANGIOTENSIN II → also acts directly on blood vessels stimulation vasoconstriction
  7. angiotensin II acts on the adrenal gland to stimulate release of ALDOSTERONE
  8. aldosterone actso on the kidneys to stimulate reabsorption of NaCL & H2O
96
Q

aldosterone

A
  • determines potassium conc. in ECF
97
Q

Oral cavity (mouth)

A
  • ingestion
  • mechanical digestion (mastication)
  • propulsion (swallowing)
  • secretion
98
Q

pharynx

A
  • propulsion (swallowing)
99
Q

esophagus

A
  • propulsion (swallowing)

- limited secretion

100
Q

stomach

A
  • propulsion
  • chemical digestion
  • mechanical digestion
  • secretion
  • limited absorption
101
Q

small intestine

A
  • chemical digestion
  • mechanical digestion
  • absorption
  • secretion
  • propulsion
102
Q

large intestine

A
  • absorption of water, electrolytes & vitamins
  • propulsion
  • limited secretion
  • defecation
103
Q

GI neural regulation - Sympathetic (fight or flight)

A
  • main innervation via the thoracic and splenic nerve plexus

- effect on GIT: decreases secretion and motility, increases sphincter closure

104
Q

GI meural regulation - Parasympathetic (rest and digest)

A
  • main innervation via the vagus nerve, some input from facial, glossopharyngeal & sacral
  • effects on GIT: increases secretion and motility, decreases sphincter closure
105
Q

Swallowing - voluntary phase

A

the tongue pushes the bolus posteriorly toward the oropharynx

106
Q

swallowing - pharyngeal phase

A

the bolus enters the oropharunx; soft palate and epiglottis seal off the nasopharynx and larynx respectively

107
Q

swallowing- esophageal phase

A

peristaltic waves move the bolus down the esophagus to the stomach

108
Q

defecation regulation: long reflex

A
  • involves spinal cord
  • parasympathetic motor fibres from the SACRAL REGION induce intensifying peristalsis in descending and sigmoidal colon and rectum; also relaxes internal sphincter
109
Q

defecation regulation: short reflex

A
  • via myenteric plexus causes muscularis to contract and internal sphincter to relax → relatively weak
110
Q

catabolism

A
  • group of reactions where one substance is broken down into smaller parts
  • exergonic reactions → release energy
  • cells can harness the energy relased to drive other processes
  • energy released is ATP
111
Q

anabolism

A
  • group of reactions which cause smaller mulecules to be combined to make a larger molecule
  • ENDERGONIC reacutions USE energy
112
Q

early prophase I

A

chromosomes form with two sister chromatids

113
Q

mid-late prophase I

A

during synapsis, homologous chromosomes form tetrads and CROSSING OVER occurs

114
Q

metaphase I

A

tetrads align randomly at equator

115
Q

anaphase I

A

random orientationin metaphase I leads to INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

116
Q

telophase I

A

cytokinesis may follow, resulting in two genetically different haploid cells w/ sister chromatids still attached

117
Q

prophase II

A

chromosomes remain condensed

118
Q

metaphse II

A

chromosomes line up along equator

119
Q

anaphase II

A

sister chromatids separate

120
Q

telophase II

A

cytokinesis follows

121
Q

regulation of reproductive system

A
  • Hypothalamus: GONADOTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE (GnRH)
  • Pituitary gland releases FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) & LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
  • stimulates ovaries and testes to produce their hormones including TESTOSTERONE, and ESTROGEN & PROGESTERONE
122
Q

spermatogenesis

A
  1. spermatogonium undergoes mitosis to produce diploid primary spermatocytes
  2. one primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid seconday spermatocytes
  3. the two secondary sparmatocytes each undergo meiosis II to produce a total of 4 haploid spermatids
  4. spermatids elongate as they being spermiogenesis
  5. spermatids continue to undergo spermiogenesis to eventually become mature sperm cells
123
Q

high testosterone negative FB loop

A
  1. hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone →stimulates the pituitary to secrete LH & FSH
  2. LH stimulates the Leydig cells to produce testosterone
  3. FSH causes cells within the seminiferous tubules to release androgen-binding protein → high conc. of testosterone near spermatogenic cells
124
Q

regulation of lactation

A
  • controlled by NEUROENDOCRINE REFLEX
  • production of milk by mammary glands is a positive FB sys
  • hypothalamus release PROLACTIN-RELEASING HORMONE & OXYTOCIN
  • anterior pituitary responds by releasing prolactin
125
Q

Oxytocin

A

(hypothalamus) helps release milk from mammary gkands

126
Q

prolactin

A

(anterior pituitary) stimulates milk production

127
Q

Factors regulating blood pressure - Cardiac output and blood volume

A

Cardiac output

  • Stroke vol
  • HR

Blood vol

  • water loss
  • water gain

Phys (14 decks)

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