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Bio 225 > review for midterm 2 > Flashcards

review for midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Out of the meristematic tissue, which one corresponds to primary growth and which to secondary growth?

A

Apical = Primary
Lateral = Secondary

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2
Q

What’s the purpose of the root cap?

A

Protects that apical meristem as root pushes through soil

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3
Q

What are the 3 zones of growth in roots?

A

1) Zone of division
2) Zone of elongation
3) Zone of differentiation

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4
Q

What is the closest relative to plants?

A

Green algae (charophytes): absorbed water, minerals, and CO2 directly from surrounding tissue

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5
Q

Where did early non-vascular plants live and what kind of roots did it have?

A

They lived in shallow water and had aerial roots

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6
Q

What kind of plant w/ what characteristics were favoured by natural selection?

A

Tall plants with flat appendages, multicellular branching roots, and efficient transport, were favoured by natural selection

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7
Q

What evolution made it possible for long-distance transport of water, minerals, and products of photosynthesis?

A

The evolution of xylem and phloem in land plants made possible the long-distance transport of water, minerals and products of photosynthesis

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8
Q

What are the 2 basic functions of stems?

A

1) serve as conduits for water and nutrients
2) support structures for leaves

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9
Q

What 2 characteristics affect light capture and what’s the trade-off?

A

Shoot length and branching pattern affect light capture; trade-off b/w growing tall and branching

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10
Q

What is phyllotaxy?

A

the arrangement of leaves on a stem, this is a species specific important trait for light capture

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11
Q

What is the phyllotaxy of most angiosperms?

A

Alternate w/ spirally arranged leaves

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12
Q

What’s the angle b/w leaves that likely minimizes shading on lower leaves?

A

137.5 degrees

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13
Q

What is leaf area index?

A

ratio of total upper leaf surface of a plant divided by surface area of land on which it grows

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14
Q

What does leaf area index affect?

A

light absorption

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15
Q

What are root and shoot systems specialized for?

A

harvesting light, water, and nutrients

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16
Q

What are 2 characteristics of plants?

A

1) autotrophs
2) performing photosynthesis

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17
Q

What characteristic of leaves affect light capture?

A

Leaf orientation

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18
Q

In low light conditions, what kind of leaf orientation is best?

A

Horizontal

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19
Q

In sunny conditions, what kind of leaf orientation is best?

A

Vertical leaves as they get less damaged by the sun and they allow for lower leaves to get light

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20
Q

In what soil condition do roots branch the most?

A

They branch higher in high nitrate soil

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21
Q

What are the 3 transport routes for water and solutes?

A

1) apoplast
2) symplast
3) transmembrane

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22
Q

What does the apoplast route consist of?

A

through cell walls and extracellular space

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23
Q

What does the symplast route consist of?

A

through the cytosol (and plasmodesmata)

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24
Q

What does the transmembrane route consist of?

A

across cell walls

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25
Q

What is the short distance transport of water in plants called?

A

Osmosis

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26
Q

How do plants balance water uptake and loss?

A

Osmosis which is the diffusion of water into and out of the cell affected by solute concentration

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27
Q

What happens if a flaccid plant cell was placed into a hypertonic (higher salt in the solution) solution?

A

Plasmolysis: occurs when the protoplast shrinks and pulls away from the cell wall

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28
Q

What are aquaporins and what do they do?

A

they’re transport proteins in cell membrane that facilitate passage of water; these affect the rate of water movement across the membrane

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29
Q

What rate is affected by aquaporins?

A

rate of water movement across the membrane

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30
Q

What happens with cells that have fewer aquaporins?

A

slower rate of osmosis

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31
Q

What is the casparian strip and what does it do?

A

strip of endodermis wall that blocks the apoplast route which is the transfer of minerals from cortex to the vascular cylinder

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32
Q

What is xylem sap made of?

A

Water and dissolved minerals

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33
Q

With what mechanism is xylem sap transported from roots to leaves?

A

Bulk flow which is driven by transpiration and doesn’t require energy from the plant since it’s solar powered

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34
Q

How is the movement of xylem sap against gravity maintained?

A

cohesion-tension hypothesis: transpiration and water cohesion pull water from roots to shoots

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35
Q

Is xylem sap under + or = pressure/tension?

A

-

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36
Q

What 2 things drive bulk flow upwards?

A

1) Adhesion: offsets gravity since water adheres to cellulose in xylem cell
2) Cohesion: 2 water molecules attach to each other

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37
Q

Where are products of photosynthesis transported through and how?

A

Products of photosynthesis are transported through phloem by translocation: Phloem sap moves through a sieve tube by bulk flow driven by positive pressure called pressure flow

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38
Q

What would decrease transpiration?

A

lower stomatal density

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39
Q

What are the 2 basic physical properties of soil?

A

1) texture
2) composition: refers to organic and inorganic components

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40
Q

What are soil particles classified by?

A

By size:
1) sand
2) silt
3) clay

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41
Q

What is the soil that is most fertile?

A

Loams: most fertile topsoils have equal amounts of sand, silt and clay

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42
Q

What layer of soil contains humus?

A

upper layers of soil contain humus

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43
Q

What is humus?

A

decaying organic material

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44
Q

What are the 3 benefits of soil containing humus?

A

1) Crumbly soil that retains H2O
2) Increases soil’s capacity to exchange cations
3) Serves as a reservoir of mineral nutrients

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45
Q

What does fertilizer do?

A

replaces mineral nutrients that have been lost from the soil (N, P, and K)

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46
Q

What does excess nutrients from fertilizers cause?

A

Algal blooms

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47
Q

How many nutrients are essential?

A

17

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48
Q

How many nutrients are macronutrients and what are they?

A

9 macronutrients:
1) Oxygen
2) Nitrogen
3) Calcium
4) Phosphorous
5) Carbon
6) Sulfur
7) Potassium
8) Magnesium
9) Hydrogen

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49
Q

How many nutrients are micronutrients and what are they?

A

8 micronutrients
1) Iron
2) Manganese
3) Mo
4) Boron
5) Chlorine
6) Copper
7) Nickel
8) zinc

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50
Q

What is the rhizosphere?

A

Soil near root environment containing microbes that rely on sugars, amino acids, and organic acids secreted from living roots

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51
Q

What are endophytes and where do they live?

A

nonpathogenic bacteria that live b/w the cells of host plant tissue

52
Q

What are the 2 forms of Nitrogen that plants can absorb?

A

1) NO3-
2) NH4+

53
Q

What are the 2 functions of mycorrhizae?

A

1) increase surface area of plants for water uptake and mineral absorption
2) secrete growth factors that stimulate root growth and branching

54
Q

How do mycorrhizae benefit from plants?

A

constant supply of sugar from host plant

55
Q

What are 3 non-mutualistic plants?

A

1) Epiphytes: live on plants and obtain water and minerals
2) Parasitic: absorbs sugar and nutrients and can kill host plant
3) Carnivorous: can photosynthesize, but obtain nitrogen by killing insects

56
Q

What are plant lifecycles characterized by?

A

Alternation of multicellular generations; sporophyte (2n) and gametophyte (n)

57
Q

What generation of the plant can we see and lives longer?

A

Sporophyte

58
Q

What are the 3 F’s of angiosperm lifecylce?

A

1) Double fertilization
2) Flowers
3) Fruits

59
Q

What are flowers to an angiosperm?

A

They are reproductive shoots of angiosperm

60
Q

What part of the stem do flowers attach to?

A

receptacle

61
Q

What are the 4 organs of flowers?

A

1) Carpels
2) Stamens
3) Petals
4) Sepals

62
Q

Which organ is the female reproductive organ?

A

Carpel: ovary, style, and stigma

63
Q

Which organ is the male reproductive organ?

A

Stamens: filaments and anthers

64
Q

What is pollination?

A

Transfer of pollen from an anther to the stigma; after landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain produces a pollen tube that grows down into the ovary and discharges 2 sperm cells near embryo sac

65
Q

What are the 3 mechanisms of pollination?

A

1) wind
2) water
3) animals

66
Q

What % of plants are pollinated by insects?

A

65%

67
Q

What is coevolution?

A

Joint evolution of interacting species in response to selection imposed by each other, common b/w animals and flowers. Shapes and sizes of flowers often correspond to the pollen-transporting parts of their animal pollinators

68
Q

What are the 4 steps in the angiosperms lifecycle?

A

1) Gametophyte development
2) Pollination
3) Double fertilization
4) Seed development

69
Q

What is the male gametophyte?

A

Pollen develops from 4 microspores and each microspore undergoes mitosis to produce 2 cells: generative cell and tube cell. Generative cells will form 2 sperm

70
Q

What is the female gametophyte?

A

Female gametophyte (embryo) develops in the ovule. 1 cell in megasporangium undergoes meiosis, producing 4 megaspores, but only 1 survives. The Megaspore then divides without cytokinesis producing one large cell w/ 8 nuclei then it’s partitioned into a multicellular female gametophyte, the embryo sac

71
Q

How many integumentary surround megasporangium within ovule?

A

2 integumentary surround megasporangium

72
Q

In seed development what develops into what?

A

ovule develops into a seed, ovary develops into a fruit

73
Q

What happens in embryo development of seed development?

A

In embryo development of seed development; zygote splits the fertilized egg into a basal cell and a terminal cell. Basal = suspensor, and Terminal = gives rise to most of the embryo

74
Q

What does the basal cell give rise to?

A

gives rise to multicellular suspensor that anchors embryo to the ovule

75
Q

What does the terminal cell give rise to?

A

gives rise to most of the embryo

76
Q

Why is seed dormancy important?

A

It increases the chances that seed germination will occur at a place and time most advantageous for seedling

77
Q

How is seed dormancy broken?

A

seed dormancy is broken by environmental cues such as temp and lighting changes

78
Q

What does seed germination depend on?

A

Imbibition: water uptake by the seed due to lower water potential in dry seed

79
Q

What are the 2 main methods of asexual reproduction?

A

1) Fragmentation: separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole plants
2) Apomixis: seed production without fertilization (from diploid cell)

80
Q

What is the advantage of sexual reproduction?

A

generates genetic variation that makes evolutionary adaptation possible

81
Q

What is the disadvantage of sexual reproduction?

A

Only a fraction of the seed survives

82
Q

What are the 4 mechanisms of preventing selfing?

A

1) Dioecious: staminate and carpellate flowers on separate plants
2) Self incompatibility: reject its own pollen
3) Reject pollen that has an S-gene arching allele in the stigma cells
4) Recognition of self blocks pollen tube growth

83
Q

What results in high genetic diversity?

A

Outcrossing/outbreeding

84
Q

What is outcrossing/outbreeding?

A

The process of transferring gametes from one individual to another that is genetically different

85
Q

What process do megasporocytes and microsporocytes both undergo?

A

Meiosis

86
Q

What is phototropism?

A

Plant orientation to light

87
Q

What is Darwin’s experiment about phototropism?

A

experiment by darwin suggests that there’s a hormone at the tip that travels down; coleoptile tip senses light

88
Q

What is gravitropism?

A

response to gravity

89
Q

+ or - gravitropism in roots and shoots?

A

+ in roots
- in shoots

90
Q

What organelle/structure is responsible for detecting gravity?

A

Statoliths

91
Q

What is thigmomorphogenesis?

A

changes in form that result from mechanical disturbance; rubbing plant fiercely results in short plant

92
Q

What is thigmotropism?

A

growth in response to touch; vines and climbing plants

93
Q

What is an example of thigmomorphogenesis?

A

Mimosa poudica: folds its leaflets and collapses in response to touch.

94
Q

Rapid leaf movement in response to mechanical stimulation are due to what?

A

Rapid leaf movement in response to mechanical stimulation are due to transmission of electrical impulses called action potentials

95
Q

What are 2 defenses against herbivory?

A

1) Physical: thorns and trichomes
2) Chemical defenses such as distasteful or toxic compounds

96
Q

What is an example of an amino acid that acts as a chemical defense?

A

canavanine

97
Q

What’s the plants first line of defense?

A

Epidermis and periderm but pathogens can still get in through wounds and natural openings like stomata

98
Q

What’s the next line of defense?

A

PAMP triggered immunity: plants recognize PAMPs which triggers signaling pathway

99
Q

Signaling pathway due to PAMP recognition leads to what 2 things?

A

1) Production of antimicrobial chemical
2) Toughening of the cell wall

100
Q

How have pathogens evolved to work around PAMP-triggered immunity?

A

Pathogens can deliver effectors to suppress PAMP-triggered immunity; these are pathogen encoded proteins. A 2nd level of plant immune defense evolved in response to these pathogens (R-genes)

101
Q

What are hormones and what do they do?

A

chemical signals that modify or control one or more specific physiological processes; also called plant growth regulators produced in very low concentrations

102
Q

What are the 5 important plant hormones?

A

1) Auxin
2) Cytokinins
3) Gibberellins
4) abscisic acid
5) Ethylene

103
Q

What is auxin known for and where is it found

A

It’s produced in shoot tips and promotes elongation of coleoptiles

104
Q

What’s the major form of auxin found in plants?

A

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)

105
Q

What is the acid growth hypothesis?

A

Auxin stimulates proton pumps in plasma membrane; pump lowers pH of the cell wall activating expansins, enzymes that loosen the wall’s fabric, then cells elongate

106
Q

What are 2 functions of cytokinins?

A

1) Stimulates cell division; produced in actively growing tissues such as roots, embryos and fruits. Can control cell division and differentiation w/ auxin
2) Slows aging

107
Q

What are the 3 processes that cytokinins use to slow the aging process?

A

1) inhibiting protein breakdown
2) stimulating RNA and protein synthesis
3) mobilizing nutrients from surrounding tissue

108
Q

What are the 3 functions of gibberellins?

A

1) Stem elongation; growth of leaves and stems
2) fruit growth; w/ auxin as well
3) Germination; after water imbibition, release of gibberellins trigger germination

109
Q

What disease is cause by fungus with gibberellins?

A

Foolish seedling disease; resulted in long thin plants

110
Q

What are the 2 functions of abscisic acid?

A

1) Seed dormancy; some seeds dormancy is broken when ABA is removed by heavy rain, light, or prolonged cold
2) Drought tolerance; ABA accumulation causes stomata to close stomata rapidly to retain H2O

111
Q

When is ethylene produced?

A

In response to stress and ripening

112
Q

What response does ethylene induce to allow for growing shoots to avoid obstacles?

A

Triple response

113
Q

What does triple response do (3)?

A

1) Slowing stem growth
2) Horizontal growth
3) Thickening

114
Q

What is senescence and what is it associated with?

A

programmed death of cells and organs, burst of ethylene is associated with apoptosis

115
Q

What controls leaf abscission?

A

change in balance of auxin and ethylene controls leaf abscission

116
Q

How does fruit ripening work with which hormone?

A

Ethylene triggers ripening process in fruits and ripening triggers release of more ethylene

117
Q

What kind of loop is ripening of fruits?

A

Positive feedback loop

118
Q

What is crop domestication?

A

process of artificially selecting plants to increase suitability to human requirements: taste, yield, storage, and cultivation practices

119
Q

What are the 4 effects of domestication syndrome?

A

1) Loss of dispersal
2) Increase in size
3) loss of seed dormancy
4) loss of chemical or mechanical protection against herbivores

120
Q

What has been used by breeders to introduce new genes?

A

Hybridization

121
Q

Plant breeding with mutations works how?

A

mutations (random) were took advantage of (beneficial mutations) and selected for beneficial mutations (desirable traits)

122
Q

What does plant biotechnology generally refer to and what does it specifically refer to?

A

1) generally refers to innovations in the use of plants to make useful
2) specifically refers to use of GM organisms in agriculture and industry

123
Q

What are transgenic organisms?

A

Organisms such that have even engineered to express a gene from another species; GM plants may increase the quality and quantity of food worldwide

124
Q

What are 3 modifications made to plants that made them transgenic organisms?

A

1) Produce toxins (Bt toxin) to defend them against insect pests
2) Tolerate herbicides
3) Resist specific disease

125
Q

What is Golden Rice?

A

increase amounts of vitamin A

126
Q

What modifications were made to cassava?

A

Increased levels of Fe and beta-carotene

Bio 225 (4 decks)

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