review Flashcards
1
Q
What is an Ad Hominem?
A
A personal attack
2
Q
what is another name for Ad Populum?
A
Appeal to celebrity
3
Q
this fallacy equates something being true because most people believe it or it is endorsed by someone
A
Ad Populum
4
Q
the fallacy in which something is true because you feel it is true
A
Affective fallacy
5
Q
which fallacy is this:
If P, then Q. Not P: therefore, not Q
A
denying the antecedent
6
Q
which fallacy is this:
If P, then Q. If Q, then P
A
affirming the consequent
7
Q
what is another name for the equivocation fallacy?
A
Amphiboly
8
Q
which fallacy is ambiguous/ can be read multiple ways?
A
equivocation fallacy
9
Q
this fallacy claims it’s better to not know/ can be proven but doesn’t want to be
A
appeal to ignorance
10
Q
this fallacy claims that something produced ‘naturally’ is better than the same thing being manufactured
A
appeal to nature
11
Q
this fallacy claims that since something has been done a certain way for a long time is better than any new way of doing it
A
appeal to tradition/common practice
12
Q
this fallacy appeals to one’s ego or vanity, ‘sucking up’
A
apple polishing
13
Q
this is where u adopt a claim/join a group bc it has become successful/popular
A
bandwagon
14
Q
this fallacy states;
P is Q because Q is P
A
begging the question
15
Q
where a person or their ideas are credible because they are famous or well-known
A
blind authority
16
Q
in which someone claims an idea is true because the opposition is unable to produce proof in the moment
A
burden of proof
17
Q
this fallacy states that since 2 events happen at the same time, they are related
A
Cum Hoc
18
Q
claiming something didn’t happen when it may have
A
denial
19
Q
criticizing another because they have something one does/does not
A
envy/jelousy
20
Q
this fallacy claims that what works for the whole works for the parts
A
fallacy of division
21
Q
this is where you compare 2 ideas that are not comparable
A
false analogy
22
Q
the claim that there are only 2 options/solutions when others are available
A
false dilemma
23
Q
this is where one plays with the odds
A
gambler’s fallacy
24
Q
this fallacy claims something’s value depends on where it came from
A
genetic/originative
25
this fallacy claims that because 2 things have a relation, they share the same values
guilt by association
26
in which you shame someone for not taking action
guilt tripping
27
claiming one experience will reflect all experiences with the same thing
hasty generalization
28
contradicting one's own argument
inconsistency fallacy
29
claiming to know another's intentions
intentional fallacy
30
pairing 2 or more unrelated ideas
non sequitur
31
responding with anger and contempt
outrage
32
taking action because others goaded you into it
peer pressure
33
claiming that if something is not 100% effective, it should not be used
perfectionist fallacy
34
appealing to emotions by pointing out someone's lowly conditions
pity
35
preventing the opposition by attacking their credibility before they had a chance to make their claims
poisoning the well
36
a false causality: claiming that one event caused another simply because one happened after the other
Post Hoc
37
attempting to make the audience fearful or disgusted
scare tactic
38
claiming one event will lead to another unlikely occurrence
slippery slope
39
making a general claim about people who share a certain common factor
stereotyping
40
distorting an argument or representing it as something it is not
straw man
41
if someone else can do it, then so can I
two wrongs make a right
42
a claim that has no way of being tested
untestable conclusion
43
What are subjective claims?
things you believe/prefer
44
what are objective claims
things that are true (googled)/can be proven
45
what are the 2 parts of an argument
a premise and a conclusion
46
what makes a statement an argument?
it can be contested/objected to
47
you feel like you are more resourceful or overestimate your abilities
better than average illusion
48
this cognitive bias is where we listen to ppl bc they have more 'power'
in group bias
49
in which the conclusion makes so much sense that you believe it
belief bias
50
in which you attach more weight to evidence that supports ur viewpoint
confirmation bias
51
unconsciously assigns a higher probability to an event based on how often one thinks of said event
availability heuristics
52
assuming our opinions and those held by ppl around us are shared by society at large
false consensus effect
53
bais that leads us to overestimate the percentage of our answers on a subject are correct
overconfidence effect
53
attaching more weight to negative information than to positive info
negativity bias
54
tendency to comply with instructions from the authority
obedience to authority
54
being more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a gain
loss aversion
55
which argument proves or demonstrates the conclusion?
deductive
56
which argument supports the conclusion?
inductive
57
if the premise is true then the conclusion is true
valid
58
what makes a strong inductive argument?
if it has more evidence that supports the conclusion
59
this mode persuades ppl by personal attributes, inc. background, reputation and expertise
ethos
60
this mode plays off emotions/ uses rhetoric
pathos
61
this mode persuades by information and rational argument
logos
62
in which u are unable to determine what a word includes/excludes, a lack of clarity
vague
63
what are some examples of vague?
bald, blond, or wealthy
64
in which there is more than one meaning/interpretation
ambiguous
65
a claim that contains an ambiguous word/phrase
semantic
66
when it's not clear if a word is being used to refer to a group collectively or to members of the group individually
grouping
67
happens when a claim is open to 2 or more interpretations bc of its structure
syntactic
68
this is where there is a lack of specificity/ broad claim
generality
69
what can reduce the credibility of a claim someone makes?
background knowledge and personal observation
70
what are some personal observations that can fail us?
being tired, sick, or distracted
71
these are beliefs we have that consist of facts we learn from our own direct observations and facts we learn from others
background info
72
the tendency to not give people we dislike the same benefit of the doubt we would automatically give to members of our group
fundamental attribution error
73
what are some different media sources?
news, internet, and social media
74
'emotive meaning'; power of words to express psychological and emotional responses
rhetoric
75
what is device 1 of rhetorical devices?
single or short phrases
76
what is the 2nd rhetorical device?
unwarranted assumptions
77
what is the 3rd rhetorical device?
humor and exaggeration
78
what is the 4th rhetorical device
definitions, explanations, and analogies
79
device 1: neutral or positive expression used instead of the negative association
euphemisms
80
device 1: produces a negative effect/tone down any positive association it may have
dysphemism
81
Device 1: helps protect a claim from criticism by watering it down/weakening it
weaslers
82
Device 1: make someone or something look less important/significant
downplayer
83
device 2: suggestion to say something bad about someone/something
innuendo
84
device 3: ridicule and vicious humor
ridicule/sarcasm
85
extravagant overstatement/exaggeration
hyperbole
86
fallacy that assumes a crystal clear line can be drawn bw 2 things, or there is no difference bw them
line-drawn fallacy
87
what do relevance fallacies do?
distract you from the argument
88
what do induction fallacies do?
tries to raise the probability of the conclusion, but is too weak to do so
89
this induction fallacy supports a general claim by telling 1 story
argument by anecdote
90
what are formal fallacies?
happen due to structure or misuse of language
91
this formal fallacy assumes that 2 things that are related to each other are also related to the 3rd (middle)
undistributed middle
92
this ambiguous fallacy contains words or phrases that make it ambiguous
equivocation
93
this ambiguous fallacy is caused by the structure of the sentence
amphiboly
94
this fallacy is where the whole is attributed to the one part
division
95
what are the 4 categorical claims?
universal affirmative/negative and particular affirmative/negative
96
what is categorical logic?
logic based on the relations of inclusion and exclusion among categories
97
in categorical logic, the first term in the claim is the...
subject
98
this categorical claim includes all
universal affirmative
99
this categorical claim excludes everything
universal negative
100
this categorical claim includes some
particular affirmative
101
this categorical claim excludes some
particular negative
102
In a ven diagram, a shaded area means...
nothing is in it
103
in a ven diagram, if there is an x in it...
at least one thing is in that part of the category
104
in a ven diagram, if the area is blank...
there is no info given regarding that category
105
when translating claims, 'wherever' becomes...
all places there are
106
when translating claims, 'except' becomes...
all people
107
when translating claims, 'whenever' becomes...
a specific time or location
108
a contrary claim in the square of opposition states that:
A + E can both be false, but both can't be true
109
a subcontrary claim in the square of opposition states that:
I + O can both be true, but both can't be false
110
a contradictory claim in the square of opposition states that:
A + O: E + I, they never have the same value
111
this categorical relation switches the positions of the subject and predicate term
conversion
112
this categorical relation changes it from an affirmative to a negative and vice versa
obversion
113
this categorical claim switches the place of the subject and predicate and then replaces both terms with complementary terms
contrapositions
114
what are the categorical syllogisms of deductive arguments?
major, minor, and middle term
115
what is the major term in syllogism?
predicate term
116
what is the minor term in syllogism?
subject term
117
what is the middle term in syllogism?
not shown in the conclusion
118
what types of sentences are used in truth-functional logic?
'if' and 'only if'
119
in a truth-functional claim, the 'P' is used to represent...
antecedent, first claim
120
in a truth-functional claim, the 'Q' is used to represent...
consequence, second claim
121
what makes an argument an argument from analogy?
an attribute is used to indicate similarity
122
what is analogous in an argument form analogy?
things being compared/have similar attributes
123
what is the premise-analogue in an argument from analogy?
item that has the attribute of interest
124
what is the conclusion-analogue in an argument from analogy?
item being compared to the premise/thing that has the attribute
125
this is where you reason that all, most, or some % of the members in a population have an attribute because all, most, or some % of the sample have that attribute
generalize from a sample
126
what does it mean to have a 'biased' sample?
one that doesn't mirror or represent the overall population
127
what 3 generalizations can weaken an argument from a sample?
atypical/biased, lack of diversity, small population
128
what generalization from a sample is this:
there aren't any rats in this motel room, therefore, there aren't any in NYC
atypical/biased
129
what generalization from a sample is this:
I don't like Jane, others feel the same
lack of diversity (only 1 sample used to get results from everyone)
130
what generalization from a sample is this:
OMG! Look at this rash! I'll stay away from all plants next time
small pop. (different types of plants, which one caused the rash?)
131
in which you conclude that a particular member of a population has an attribute bc a high proportion of all the population has that attribute
de-generalizing
132
what is a causal statement?
cause and effect, sparks an investigation
133
134
what is a causal hypothesis?
tentative claim that needs further testing
135
this principle of causal hypothesis is when something unusual happens, you look for something else that was unusual and consider if that might be the cause
paired unusual event
136
this principle of causal hypothesis looks for a common denominator or pattern that happened in multiple occurrences, tries to see if they are related
common variable principle
137
this principle of causal hypothesis looks for a 'link', in which a variation in another phenomenon accompanies a variation in one phenomenon
co-variation principle
138
how can you confirm a causal hypothesis?
randomized experiment, prospective, or retrospective studies
139
this method of confirming a causal hypothesis uses randomly assigned groups, and only one receives the suspected cause
randomized controlled experiment
140
this method of confirming a causal hypothesis studies 2 groups and how the frequency given to 1 group differs from the other group
prospective observation study
141
this method of confirming a causal hypothesis studies 2 groups and studies what happens after the suspected cause is
retrospective reasoning
142
how do you find expectation value?
(multiply probability of you winning) (amount you might win) - (probability of you losing) (amount you might lose)
143
what is a value judgment?
how much merit, desirability, or worthiness is attached to someone/something (+ or -)
144
what is a moral value judgment?
attaches morals to a judgment
145
this moral reasoning is the view that the consequences of a decision determine its moral value
consequentialism
146
this moral reasoning states that if a certain action produces more happiness than the alternative, then that is the correct action
utilitarianism
147
this moral reasoning states that doing something not to achieve a goal or praise, but because it's the right thing to do
moral duty/duty ethics
148
this moral reasoning is dependant on what a group or culture defines as right and wrong
moral relativism
149
this moral reasoning states that what is wrong and right is a subjective opinion
moral subjectivism
150
this moral reasoning is the belief that what is wrong and right is whatever that religion states it is
religious relativism
151
this moral reasoning states that the correct moral principles are those accepted by the 'correct' religion
religious absolutism
152
a claim that the law should make anything that is immoral illegal
legal reasoning
153
this consequential theory states that if an act produces more happiness for me than the alternative, that is the correct action to take
ethical egoism
154
this consequentialism theory is where one discounts one's own happiness as a lesser value compared to others is taken into account
ethical altruism
155
this moral reasoning states that a case that has already happened should be used to act upon this new case, as long as they have similar components
appeal to precedent
156
this type of legal moralism states that something should be made illegal if it has the potential to harm others
harm principle
157
this legal moralism states that something should be made illegal if it can prevent people from causing harm to themselves
legal paternalism
158
this legal moralism states that something should be made illegal if it offends others
offense principle
