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review Flashcards

1
Q

What is an Ad Hominem?

A

A personal attack

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2
Q

what is another name for Ad Populum?

A

Appeal to celebrity

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3
Q

this fallacy equates something being true because most people believe it or it is endorsed by someone

A

Ad Populum

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4
Q

the fallacy in which something is true because you feel it is true

A

Affective fallacy

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5
Q

which fallacy is this:
If P, then Q. Not P: therefore, not Q

A

denying the antecedent

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6
Q

which fallacy is this:
If P, then Q. If Q, then P

A

affirming the consequent

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7
Q

what is another name for the equivocation fallacy?

A

Amphiboly

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8
Q

which fallacy is ambiguous/ can be read multiple ways?

A

equivocation fallacy

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9
Q

this fallacy claims it’s better to not know/ can be proven but doesn’t want to be

A

appeal to ignorance

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10
Q

this fallacy claims that something produced ‘naturally’ is better than the same thing being manufactured

A

appeal to nature

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11
Q

this fallacy claims that since something has been done a certain way for a long time is better than any new way of doing it

A

appeal to tradition/common practice

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12
Q

this fallacy appeals to one’s ego or vanity, ‘sucking up’

A

apple polishing

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13
Q

this is where u adopt a claim/join a group bc it has become successful/popular

A

bandwagon

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14
Q

this fallacy states;
P is Q because Q is P

A

begging the question

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15
Q

where a person or their ideas are credible because they are famous or well-known

A

blind authority

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16
Q

in which someone claims an idea is true because the opposition is unable to produce proof in the moment

A

burden of proof

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17
Q

this fallacy states that since 2 events happen at the same time, they are related

A

Cum Hoc

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18
Q

claiming something didn’t happen when it may have

A

denial

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19
Q

criticizing another because they have something one does/does not

A

envy/jelousy

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20
Q

this fallacy claims that what works for the whole works for the parts

A

fallacy of division

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21
Q

this is where you compare 2 ideas that are not comparable

A

false analogy

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22
Q

the claim that there are only 2 options/solutions when others are available

A

false dilemma

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23
Q

this is where one plays with the odds

A

gambler’s fallacy

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24
Q

this fallacy claims something’s value depends on where it came from

A

genetic/originative

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25
Q

this fallacy claims that because 2 things have a relation, they share the same values

A

guilt by association

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26
Q

in which you shame someone for not taking action

A

guilt tripping

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27
Q

claiming one experience will reflect all experiences with the same thing

A

hasty generalization

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28
Q

contradicting one’s own argument

A

inconsistency fallacy

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29
Q

claiming to know another’s intentions

A

intentional fallacy

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30
Q

pairing 2 or more unrelated ideas

A

non sequitur

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31
Q

responding with anger and contempt

A

outrage

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32
Q

taking action because others goaded you into it

A

peer pressure

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33
Q

claiming that if something is not 100% effective, it should not be used

A

perfectionist fallacy

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34
Q

appealing to emotions by pointing out someone’s lowly conditions

A

pity

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35
Q

preventing the opposition by attacking their credibility before they had a chance to make their claims

A

poisoning the well

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36
Q

a false causality: claiming that one event caused another simply because one happened after the other

A

Post Hoc

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37
Q

attempting to make the audience fearful or disgusted

A

scare tactic

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38
Q

claiming one event will lead to another unlikely occurrence

A

slippery slope

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39
Q

making a general claim about people who share a certain common factor

A

stereotyping

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40
Q

distorting an argument or representing it as something it is not

A

straw man

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41
Q

if someone else can do it, then so can I

A

two wrongs make a right

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42
Q

a claim that has no way of being tested

A

untestable conclusion

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43
Q

What are subjective claims?

A

things you believe/prefer

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44
Q

what are objective claims

A

things that are true (googled)/can be proven

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45
Q

what are the 2 parts of an argument

A

a premise and a conclusion

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46
Q

what makes a statement an argument?

A

it can be contested/objected to

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47
Q

you feel like you are more resourceful or overestimate your abilities

A

better than average illusion

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48
Q

this cognitive bias is where we listen to ppl bc they have more ‘power’

A

in group bias

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49
Q

in which the conclusion makes so much sense that you believe it

A

belief bias

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50
Q

in which you attach more weight to evidence that supports ur viewpoint

A

confirmation bias

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51
Q

unconsciously assigns a higher probability to an event based on how often one thinks of said event

A

availability heuristics

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52
Q

assuming our opinions and those held by ppl around us are shared by society at large

A

false consensus effect

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53
Q

bais that leads us to overestimate the percentage of our answers on a subject are correct

A

overconfidence effect

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53
Q

attaching more weight to negative information than to positive info

A

negativity bias

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54
Q

tendency to comply with instructions from the authority

A

obedience to authority

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54
Q

being more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a gain

A

loss aversion

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55
Q

which argument proves or demonstrates the conclusion?

A

deductive

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56
Q

which argument supports the conclusion?

A

inductive

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57
Q

if the premise is true then the conclusion is true

A

valid

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58
Q

what makes a strong inductive argument?

A

if it has more evidence that supports the conclusion

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59
Q

this mode persuades ppl by personal attributes, inc. background, reputation and expertise

A

ethos

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60
Q

this mode plays off emotions/ uses rhetoric

A

pathos

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61
Q

this mode persuades by information and rational argument

A

logos

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62
Q

in which u are unable to determine what a word includes/excludes, a lack of clarity

A

vague

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63
Q

what are some examples of vague?

A

bald, blond, or wealthy

64
Q

in which there is more than one meaning/interpretation

A

ambiguous

65
Q

a claim that contains an ambiguous word/phrase

A

semantic

66
Q

when it’s not clear if a word is being used to refer to a group collectively or to members of the group individually

A

grouping

67
Q

happens when a claim is open to 2 or more interpretations bc of its structure

A

syntactic

68
Q

this is where there is a lack of specificity/ broad claim

A

generality

69
Q

what can reduce the credibility of a claim someone makes?

A

background knowledge and personal observation

70
Q

what are some personal observations that can fail us?

A

being tired, sick, or distracted

71
Q

these are beliefs we have that consist of facts we learn from our own direct observations and facts we learn from others

A

background info

72
Q

the tendency to not give people we dislike the same benefit of the doubt we would automatically give to members of our group

A

fundamental attribution error

73
Q

what are some different media sources?

A

news, internet, and social media

74
Q

‘emotive meaning’; power of words to express psychological and emotional responses

A

rhetoric

75
Q

what is device 1 of rhetorical devices?

A

single or short phrases

76
Q

what is the 2nd rhetorical device?

A

unwarranted assumptions

77
Q

what is the 3rd rhetorical device?

A

humor and exaggeration

78
Q

what is the 4th rhetorical device

A

definitions, explanations, and analogies

79
Q

device 1: neutral or positive expression used instead of the negative association

A

euphemisms

80
Q

device 1: produces a negative effect/tone down any positive association it may have

A

dysphemism

81
Q

Device 1: helps protect a claim from criticism by watering it down/weakening it

A

weaslers

82
Q

Device 1: make someone or something look less important/significant

A

downplayer

83
Q

device 2: suggestion to say something bad about someone/something

A

innuendo

84
Q

device 3: ridicule and vicious humor

A

ridicule/sarcasm

85
Q

extravagant overstatement/exaggeration

A

hyperbole

86
Q

fallacy that assumes a crystal clear line can be drawn bw 2 things, or there is no difference bw them

A

line-drawn fallacy

87
Q

what do relevance fallacies do?

A

distract you from the argument

88
Q

what do induction fallacies do?

A

tries to raise the probability of the conclusion, but is too weak to do so

89
Q

this induction fallacy supports a general claim by telling 1 story

A

argument by anecdote

90
Q

what are formal fallacies?

A

happen due to structure or misuse of language

91
Q

this formal fallacy assumes that 2 things that are related to each other are also related to the 3rd (middle)

A

undistributed middle

92
Q

this ambiguous fallacy contains words or phrases that make it ambiguous

A

equivocation

93
Q

this ambiguous fallacy is caused by the structure of the sentence

A

amphiboly

94
Q

this fallacy is where the whole is attributed to the one part

A

division

95
Q

what are the 4 categorical claims?

A

universal affirmative/negative and particular affirmative/negative

96
Q

what is categorical logic?

A

logic based on the relations of inclusion and exclusion among categories

97
Q

in categorical logic, the first term in the claim is the…

A

subject

98
Q

this categorical claim includes all

A

universal affirmative

99
Q

this categorical claim excludes everything

A

universal negative

100
Q

this categorical claim includes some

A

particular affirmative

101
Q

this categorical claim excludes some

A

particular negative

102
Q

In a ven diagram, a shaded area means…

A

nothing is in it

103
Q

in a ven diagram, if there is an x in it…

A

at least one thing is in that part of the category

104
Q

in a ven diagram, if the area is blank…

A

there is no info given regarding that category

105
Q

when translating claims, ‘wherever’ becomes…

A

all places there are

106
Q

when translating claims, ‘except’ becomes…

A

all people

107
Q

when translating claims, ‘whenever’ becomes…

A

a specific time or location

108
Q

a contrary claim in the square of opposition states that:

A

A + E can both be false, but both can’t be true

109
Q

a subcontrary claim in the square of opposition states that:

A

I + O can both be true, but both can’t be false

110
Q

a contradictory claim in the square of opposition states that:

A

A + O: E + I, they never have the same value

111
Q

this categorical relation switches the positions of the subject and predicate term

A

conversion

112
Q

this categorical relation changes it from an affirmative to a negative and vice versa

A

obversion

113
Q

this categorical claim switches the place of the subject and predicate and then replaces both terms with complementary terms

A

contrapositions

114
Q

what are the categorical syllogisms of deductive arguments?

A

major, minor, and middle term

115
Q

what is the major term in syllogism?

A

predicate term

116
Q

what is the minor term in syllogism?

A

subject term

117
Q

what is the middle term in syllogism?

A

not shown in the conclusion

118
Q

what types of sentences are used in truth-functional logic?

A

‘if’ and ‘only if’

119
Q

in a truth-functional claim, the ‘P’ is used to represent…

A

antecedent, first claim

120
Q

in a truth-functional claim, the ‘Q’ is used to represent…

A

consequence, second claim

121
Q

what makes an argument an argument from analogy?

A

an attribute is used to indicate similarity

122
Q

what is analogous in an argument form analogy?

A

things being compared/have similar attributes

123
Q

what is the premise-analogue in an argument from analogy?

A

item that has the attribute of interest

124
Q

what is the conclusion-analogue in an argument from analogy?

A

item being compared to the premise/thing that has the attribute

125
Q

this is where you reason that all, most, or some % of the members in a population have an attribute because all, most, or some % of the sample have that attribute

A

generalize from a sample

126
Q

what does it mean to have a ‘biased’ sample?

A

one that doesn’t mirror or represent the overall population

127
Q

what 3 generalizations can weaken an argument from a sample?

A

atypical/biased, lack of diversity, small population

128
Q

what generalization from a sample is this:
there aren’t any rats in this motel room, therefore, there aren’t any in NYC

A

atypical/biased

129
Q

what generalization from a sample is this:
I don’t like Jane, others feel the same

A

lack of diversity (only 1 sample used to get results from everyone)

130
Q

what generalization from a sample is this:
OMG! Look at this rash! I’ll stay away from all plants next time

A

small pop. (different types of plants, which one caused the rash?)

131
Q

in which you conclude that a particular member of a population has an attribute bc a high proportion of all the population has that attribute

A

de-generalizing

132
Q

what is a causal statement?

A

cause and effect, sparks an investigation

133
Q
A
134
Q

what is a causal hypothesis?

A

tentative claim that needs further testing

135
Q

this principle of causal hypothesis is when something unusual happens, you look for something else that was unusual and consider if that might be the cause

A

paired unusual event

136
Q

this principle of causal hypothesis looks for a common denominator or pattern that happened in multiple occurrences, tries to see if they are related

A

common variable principle

137
Q

this principle of causal hypothesis looks for a ‘link’, in which a variation in another phenomenon accompanies a variation in one phenomenon

A

co-variation principle

138
Q

how can you confirm a causal hypothesis?

A

randomized experiment, prospective, or retrospective studies

139
Q

this method of confirming a causal hypothesis uses randomly assigned groups, and only one receives the suspected cause

A

randomized controlled experiment

140
Q

this method of confirming a causal hypothesis studies 2 groups and how the frequency given to 1 group differs from the other group

A

prospective observation study

141
Q

this method of confirming a causal hypothesis studies 2 groups and studies what happens after the suspected cause is

A

retrospective reasoning

142
Q

how do you find expectation value?

A

(multiply probability of you winning) (amount you might win) - (probability of you losing) (amount you might lose)

143
Q

what is a value judgment?

A

how much merit, desirability, or worthiness is attached to someone/something (+ or -)

144
Q

what is a moral value judgment?

A

attaches morals to a judgment

145
Q

this moral reasoning is the view that the consequences of a decision determine its moral value

A

consequentialism

146
Q

this moral reasoning states that if a certain action produces more happiness than the alternative, then that is the correct action

A

utilitarianism

147
Q

this moral reasoning states that doing something not to achieve a goal or praise, but because it’s the right thing to do

A

moral duty/duty ethics

148
Q

this moral reasoning is dependant on what a group or culture defines as right and wrong

A

moral relativism

149
Q

this moral reasoning states that what is wrong and right is a subjective opinion

A

moral subjectivism

150
Q

this moral reasoning is the belief that what is wrong and right is whatever that religion states it is

A

religious relativism

151
Q

this moral reasoning states that the correct moral principles are those accepted by the ‘correct’ religion

A

religious absolutism

152
Q

a claim that the law should make anything that is immoral illegal

A

legal reasoning

153
Q

this consequential theory states that if an act produces more happiness for me than the alternative, that is the correct action to take

A

ethical egoism

154
Q

this consequentialism theory is where one discounts one’s own happiness as a lesser value compared to others is taken into account

A

ethical altruism

155
Q

this moral reasoning states that a case that has already happened should be used to act upon this new case, as long as they have similar components

A

appeal to precedent

156
Q

this type of legal moralism states that something should be made illegal if it has the potential to harm others

A

harm principle

157
Q

this legal moralism states that something should be made illegal if it can prevent people from causing harm to themselves

A

legal paternalism

158
Q

this legal moralism states that something should be made illegal if it offends others

A

offense principle

CT review (6 decks)

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