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The British Empire > Retreat > Flashcards

Retreat Flashcards

1
Q

Reasons for decolonisation

A

Economic impact of World War Two
Changed international situation
Emergence of powerful nationalist movements in the colonies
Changing priorities in Europe

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2
Q

Changed international situation

A

Both the USA and the USSR, the new dominant powers, were hostile to imperialism
Britain susceptible to American pressure to speed up decolonisation since it was heavily dependent on the US for defence and economic support

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3
Q

Economic impact of World War Two

A

No imperial power could afford to fight a series of prolonged colonial wars against insurgent nationalist movements

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4
Q

Changing priorities in Europe

A

Britain less dependent on colonial support following post-war economic recovery of Europe
Britain joined EEC in 1973, which helped to refocus trade within Europe, having initially chosen to not join in 1957

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5
Q

Britain’s post-war imperial policy in Africa

A

Placed emphasis upon developing the African colonies so that they could contribute to Britain’s post-war economy
Enshrined in the creation of the Colonial Development Corporation (1948)

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6
Q

The Gold Coast

A

Perceived as being the most mature African colony
1946 - Burns Constitution, which allowed Africans to sit on a Legislative Council, although final power still remained in the hands of the British governor
1949 - Convention People’s Party founded by Kwame Nkrumah, and pressured the British to make further concessions
1951 - CPP win 2/3 of Legislative Assembly seats
1952 - Nkrumah released from prison and made PM
1957 - Becomes fully independent (Ghana)

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7
Q

Nigeria

A

1946 - Richards Constitution, almost identical to the Burns constitution
British aimed for a federation of separate regional states when independence was granted, so established assemblies in three regions to debate local matters
Regional assemblies could not be over-ruled by the House of Representatives, exacerbating racial tensions
New political parties created representing different ethnic groups, forcing further British concessions
Power increasingly devolved to various regional governments, and following federal elections in 1959, moves were made towards full independence for the country in 1960

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8
Q

West Africa

A

Gold Coast

Nigeria

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9
Q

Further West African independence

A

Sierra Leone - 1961

Gambia - 1965

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10
Q

Decolonisation in East Africa

A

More violent due to urbanisation and greater political consciousness brought about by economic growth
Failure of economic schemes provoked peasants into supporting the nationalist movements
eg. Tanganyika Ground Nut scheme (1946-51)
1952 - 1956 - Mau Mau uprising, with Kikuyu people aggrieved at their treatment by the white settlers
Tanganyika granted independence (Tanzania) - 1961
Uganda - 1962
Kenya - 1963

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11
Q

South Africa

A

1948 - Afrikaner nationalist party win power and implement policy of Apartheid
March 1960 - Afrikaner government kill 69 protests at Sharpesville
Britain refused to hand over adjacent lands to South Africa
1961 - White South African population voted to become a Republic and leave the Commonwealth

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12
Q

Attempts of British to counter-balance South African influence in southern Africa by building up other colonial possessions in the region

A

Northern Rhodesia - copper
Southern Rhodesia - agriculture
Nyaysaland

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13
Q

Central African Federation

A

1953
One consolidated colonial state
Discriminatory legislation could be vetoed by Britain
Dissolved in 1963 following powerful nationalist movements pressuring British

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14
Q

Burma

A

1948 - Elections for a Constituent Assembly produce huge AFPFL majority (Aung San)
Independence hindered by factions within the AFPFL
eg. Aung-San assassinated

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15
Q

Malaya

A

Regarded as important to Britain’s post-war economic strategy
January 1948 - Federation of Malaya created, establishing an executive council, a legislative council and state governments
June 1948 - State of emergency declared by British in fear of potential rebel attacks on rubber plantations
1952-54 - Malay and Chinese unite against British rule, winning 81% of votes in 1955 elections
1957 - Independent Malaya created by the Reid Commission

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16
Q

Singapore

A

1947-48 - Given its own government, with an executive and legislative councils
Only British subjects had the vote (10% of population)
Government struggled to contain communist insurgency
Legislative Council enlarged to win the loyalty of the population
Left-wing parties succeed in 1955 elections
1957 - Lim Yew Hock impressed British by taking strong action against the communists, persuading Britain to implement self-government for Singapore through the State of Singapore Act (1958), but Singapore remained part of the Empire
1965 - Singapore becomes fully independent after its expelled from the Federation of Malaya

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17
Q

Post-war colonial policy and administration

A

Belief that Britain’s future prosperity lay in trade with the Empire and Commonwealth rather than with Europe
Colonial administrators tasked with raising colonial production and modernising economies
Greater pro-activeness from colonial administrators meant giving less power to indigenous leaders

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18
Q

The ‘wind of change’ speech

A

February 1960
Harold Macmillan
Made it clear that Britain would grant independence to its African territories

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19
Q

British control of the Middle East by 1947

A

Fearful about communist Russia’s ambitions in the region
10,000 troops in the Suez Canal Zone
Control over Aden, Cyprus, and air-force bases in Iraq
Financed and provided officers for the Jordanian Army
Arabs not prepares to support Britain against Russia while Britain maintained its Suez garrisons and controlled the Sudan

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20
Q

Anthony Eden’s negotiations with Nasser (1954)

A

Agreed to grant Sudanese independence and withdraw from the Suez Canal Zone
Concessions reflected Britain’s desire to improve Anglo-Arab relations and also its financial difficulties
Egyptians promised the British free access through the Suez Canal
1955 - Baghdad Pact signed to repel any Soviet threat to the Middle East

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21
Q

The Suez Canal Crisis

A

July 1956 - Nasser announces nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company, weakening the British government which held 44% of the company’s shares
Only the removal of Nasser from power would ensure the security of British and French interests in the Middle East according to Eden
October 1956 - Israel attacked Egypt, providing an excuse for French/British intervention
Attack immediately condemned by the USA
Ceasefire announced within five days
Eden forced to resign

22
Q

Consequences of the Suez Crisis

A

Contributed to growing realisation across the political spectrum in Britain that the days of empire were numbered
Strengthened nationalist movements
Dispelled notion that Britain could retreat from Empire in a way that would preserve British power

23
Q

Imperial trade and commerce post-war importance (1947-1956)

A

Provided imports of food and raw materials at a time when Britain’s reserves of foreign exchange were too limited to source imports from elsewhere
1956 - 58% of all overseas investments in the UK in shares and securities were in Empire companies and governments

24
Q

British imports from / exports to the Commonwealth (1956 - 65)

A

Imports in 1956 - 48%
Imports in 1965 - 30%

Exports in 1956 - 48%
Exports in 1965 - 28%

25
Q

Factors behind declining trade with Commonwealth

A

Growing trade with Western Europe following recovery of European economy due to US Marshall Aid and climate of liberal democracy which favoured private enterprise
Advances in science and technology
Changes in industrial relations

26
Q

Successful post-war colonial development schemes

A

Colonial Development and Welfare Acts (1940 and 1945) were used to expand agricultural production and promote new technology in the colonies
1948 - Colonial Development Corporation set up to co-ordinate major projects and develop self-sustaining agriculture, industry and trade
Malay rubber allowed Malaya to contribute to the Hard Currency Pool

27
Q

Unsuccessful post-war

A

1946-51 - Tanganyika groundnut scheme

28
Q

Gold Coast nationalist leader

A

Kwame Nkrumah
Enjoyed a Western education
1949 - Formed the Convention’s People’s Party
Prime Minister between 1953 and 1957, when Ghana gained independence colonial development schemes
Figurehead for African nationalism
Pan-Africanism - Founded the Organisation of African Unity in 1963
Marxist socialism
Popular nationalism

29
Q

Nigerian nationalist leader

A

Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe
Enjoyed a Western education
Created the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (1944)
Worked with nationalist rivals and the British due to federalism in Nigeria
Secured independence for Nigeria in 1960
Persuaded the British that the Nigerian states could work successfully together, without British imperial rule

30
Q

Kenyan nationalist leader

A

Jomo Kenyatta
Member of the Kikuyu
1947 - Became President of the Kenya Africa Union
Arrested following the Mau Mau uprising
1960 - Elected leader of the Kenya African National Union
Negotiated with British after his release, leading to independence in 1963
Prime Minister then President
Ensured Kikuyu dominance
Created a one-party state (1964) and amended the Constitution to expand his own powers (1966)

31
Q

Ugandan nationalist leader

A

Apolo Milton Obote
1962 - Became Prime Minister
Maintained power by military force
1966 - Suspended the Constitution and declared himself President

32
Q

South Africa nationalist leader

A 
Nelson Mandela
Member of the African National Congress
1961 - Founded the armed wing of the ANC
1962 - Arrested
1990 - Freed from prison
President of South Africa between 1994 and 1999
33
Q

How did the growth and development of the Commonwealth help to maintain political ties?

A

Commonwealth Conferences held every two years

1952 - Commonwealth Economic Conference

34
Q

Immigration from Britain to the Commonwealth

A

1946 - 1957 - One million people left Britain for the Dominions
1948 - 25% of British population in contact with relatives in the Dominions
Rarer from the 1960’s, as living conditions in Britain had increased and National Service had been abolished

35
Q

Immigration from the Commonwealth to Britain

A

1948 - British Nationality Act recognised the Empire’s war-time contribution, giving full British citizenship to every inhabitant of the Commonwealth
Jobs available for immigrants in the NHS and TFL
More immigrants between 1960 and 1962 than the 1900 and 1960
1962-65 - 50,000 immigrants a year

36
Q

Response of British public to increased immigration

A

1958 - ‘Teddy boy’ youths attacked blacks
Violent riots in Nottingham and Notting Hill
Oswald Mosley’s Union Movement
1962 - 90% of British public supported legislation that would curb immigration, and 80% agreed that there were too many immigrants in Britain already
1965 - 1/5 objected to working with blacks or Asians
1/2 would refuse to live next door to blacks or Asians
9/10 disapproved of mixed marriages
Racist TV - Alf Garnett in ‘Till Death Do us Part’ - “coon”

37
Q

Example of harmonious British public response to increased immigration

A

Notting Hill Carnival (from 1959)

38
Q

1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act

A

An attempt to control the escalating immigration
Ended free immigration for former colonial subjects
Supported by 70% of British population
Motivated immigrants already in Britain to put down roots

39
Q

1965 Race Relations Act

A

Forbade discrimination in public places

Created a Race Relations Board

40
Q

Residual impact of Empire

A

Sport
Language - pyjamas
Honours system

41
Q

Factors leading to the growth of nationalist movements

A 
The legacy of war
Economic and social discontent
Ethnic and religious rivalries
Charismatic Western-educated leaders
Mass political parties
42
Q

Mau Mau Uprising

A

1952-56
Escalation of murders by Mau Mau of white farmers and Kikuyu’s who didn’t take the Mau Mau Oath
British responded by suspending political rights for all blacks and arresting black leaders
British killed 11,000 Mau Mau, detained 81,000
Showed that Britain was poorly equipped to deal with a large-scale insurrection

43
Q

Nigerian nationalist independence parties

A

The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe)
The Action Group (Obafemi Awolowo)
The Northern People’s Congress (Ahmadu Bello)

44
Q

The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (South)

A

Nnamdi Azikiwe

Widest appeal of all parties

45
Q

The Action Group (West)

A

Resisted the concept of unitary government

46
Q

The Northern People’s Congress (North)

A

Wanted to protect northern political and social institutions from southern influence

47
Q

When did Nigeria become self-governing?

A

South and West - 1957

North - 1959

48
Q

Events following dissolution of the Central African Federation

A

1964
Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland gain independence as Zambia and Malawi respectively, with a Black African majority + Commonwealth
Southern Rhodesia retained a white-dominated government
1965 - Southern Rhodesia declares a Unilateral Declaration of Independence as Rhodesia
UDI rejected by Britain, USA, etc
British sanctions limited by SA’s non-cooperation
UDI triggered 15 year long civil war between whites and blacks, with blacks winning and forming Zimbabwe in 1980

49
Q

East of Suez

A

January 1968

Labour PM Harold Wilson announces that British troops would be withdrawn from major military bases

50
Q

Sir Andrew Cohen (colonial administrator)

A

Believed strongly in devolution to native Africans
Cohen Report (1947) - Set out route for eventual African independence
Proposed the Central African Federation to prevent the spread of apartheid
1952-57 - Governor of Uganda, helping to lay the groundwork for independence in 1962

The British Empire (5 decks)

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