Challenged Flashcards
How did the Colonies help Britain in World War One?
Sent men to fight
Supplied Britain with raw materials and food
Imperial war cabinet
The Presidents of the Dominions and nominated Indian representatives joined the war cabinet (1917)
Symbolised the union of the British Empire in war
Only held two sessions, and the British dominated proceedings
Involvement and impact in WW1 - The White Dominions
Mostly keen to help Britain
Sent 1.3 million men to fight
Conscription introduced in New Zealand and Canada during the war (16k and 56.5k died respectively)
413,000 Australians enlisted, 30% of all eligible males (58k died)
ANZACS at Gallipoli (1915)
Canadians at Vimy Ridge (1917)
Canada supplied Britain with munitions and wheat
South Africa - General Smuts led the South African Defence Force against the Germans in its colonies
136,000 South African troops fought in the Middle East and the Western Front
Demonstrated the loyalty of the White Dominions to Britain and Empire
Triggered debate about the long-term future of the Dominions
War not popular in Quebec - seen as a pro-British affair
Boosted confidence of Dominions and strengthened self-worth
Involvement and impact in WW1 - India
1.4 million troops volunteered
1/3 of troops in France in the autumn of 1914 either Indian or Britons who had formerly served in India
1917 - Indian government contributed £100 million to Britain’s war effort
Montagu Declaration (August 1917) - Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, promised more responsible self-government, in acknowledgement of India’s contribution and in response to growing support for Indian independence
Involvement and impact in WW1 - Africa
1.2 million Egyptians recruited to defend Egypt
100,000 Egyptians fought in Europe, 50% of which were killed
Fewer Black Africans fought, but were recruited to work in France as labourers
Formative in the development of African independent movement - first Pan-African Congress held in France (1919)
Mandate system
Developed following World War One
Allowed Britain and France to secure further imperial control
Defined according to a system of categories based on how developed they were
A - Palestine
B - Tanganyika
C - Samoa
Sykes-Picot agreement
1916
Secretly divided up the Middle East between France and Britain
The Balfour Declaration
1917
Letter from Foreign Secretary to Walter Rothschild declaring support for Zionism
Led to increased Jewish immigration into Palestine (6.9% in 1918 to 17.7% in 1931) (60k to 175k)
Colonies lost as a result of World War One
Ireland
Egypt
Iraq
Egypt
Declared a British protectorate at the start of the war
Granted independence in 1922
British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936, under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal
Iraq
Following 1920 revolt, Churchill (Colonial Secretary) responsible in 1921 to find an Iraqi ruler acceptable to Iraqis and friendly to Britain - Fesial, son of Sherif Hussein,
Ruled as a mandate between 1922 and 1930
Full independence granted in 1932
Britain protected the monarchial rule of the Hashemites
New independent government maintained close economic and military ties with Britain (air bases)
Colonial involvement in the Second World War - South East Asia
February 1942- Japan seized Singapore from Britain
Main British military naval base
Brought the largest surrender of British troops in history
Success of Japanese ended myth of ‘white invincibility’, giving confidence to new independence movements
New independence movements in South East Asia following World War Two
30,000 Indian troops form the Indian National Army, led by Bose
Fought against the British from 1943 in Burma
Aung San in Burma formed the Burma Independence Army, who also fought against the British
Colonial involvement in the Second World War - North Africa
Britain desperate to preserve its influence in Egypt and access to Suez and oil in the Middle East
November 1942 - Germans driven back at the Battle of El Alamein
Changes following World War Two
Britain weaker economically
Labour government in power (more sceptical of Empire)
Independence movements had grown stronger
Indian legislation in the inter-war years
The Rowlatt Act (1919) The Government of India Act (1919) The Simon Commission (1929-30) The Round Table Conferences (1930-31) The Government of India Act (1935)
The Rowlatt Act
1919
Gave authorities harsh powers to arrest anyone who protested against British rule
Allowed unlimited detention without trial, trial without jury
Counter-productive, producing resistance, viewed as a betrayal
Amritsar massacre (April 1919)
Nationalist movements in India during the 1930’s
All India Muslim League
Hindu Congress Movement
British favoured the Muslim League
Suggested that British rule prevented Muslim v Hindu civil war
All Indian Muslim League
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Wanted a separate, independent Muslim state (Pakistan)
Hindu Congress Movement
Gandhi
Wanted a united Indian state
India in the Second World War
Supported the British war effort
British defeats in South-East Asia emboldened the Hindu Congress, which demanded immediate reform
Indian National Army formed
British adopted policy of repression, imprisoning Congress leaders and favouring the Muslim League
When did Sir Stafford Cripps promise Indians full dominion status?
March 1942
Sent by Churchill
“Quit India” Campaign
August 1942
Led by Gandhi and other Congress leaders
Called for the British to leave India entirely
Gandhi and others arrested and spent the rest of the war in prison
1,000 Indians killed
Nearly 100,000 Indians arrested
When did Britain decide to grant India independence?
1945 - Labour government concluded that it was no longer feasible or desirable to keep India
Reasons for British granting Indian independence
Feared violent and widespread Indian resistance, which would spread military resources
Activities of INA and the strength of pro-independence feeling meant that British could no longer trust the Indian Army
India no longer a great market for British cotton exports, so would cost more to hold on to than it would generate in profit
Viceroy Mountbatten
1947 - Sent by government to India with instructions to bring about Indian independence before June 1948
When was it decided that India be partitioned, and when by?
April - May 1947
15th August 1947
Effects of partition
Violence between Muslims and Hindus escalated
Millions fled their homeland for the security of a country in which their own religion was the majority
One million died
Demonstrates how British attempts to keep India in the Empire by combination of repression and concession had failed
Colonial involvement in the Second World War - Burma
Occupied by the Japanese in the Second World War
Anti-Facist Organisation initially supported Japanese against the British, but belatedly accepted in 1944 that an Allied victory would be more likely to secure Burmese independence
1945 - Mountbatten incorporated Burma Independence Army into a new army for the country, and recognised Aung San as a legitimate leader of Burma
Independence granted in 1948
Effect of the Second World War on Palestine
Holocaust led to more Jews wanting to emigrate to Palestine
1939 White Paper - British limited Jewish immigration to dampen tensions between Jews and Arabs (10k a year for 5 years, with 35k in year one), with subsequent immigration having to be approved by Arabs
February 1947 - Britain refer the issue to the UN
May 1948 - British withdraw from Palestine
Problems for Britain regarding Palestine post-war
America supported the establishment of a Jewish state, forcing Britain to decide between America (economic aid and international support) and its Middle East allies (oil)
Violence in Palestine stretched British resources
1937 - Peel Commission (2-state solution)
The Government of India Act 1
1919
Viceroy required to report before the Legislative Council, but retained control of defence and foreign affairs
Provincial councils run by Indians given responsibility for local government
Regarded by the British as a concession to critics of Britain in the Indian National Conference and as a first step towards a system of Dominion self-government
Recommendations made by the Simon Commission (1929-30)
Creation of a federal system of government across India, incorporating provinces under British rule and Princely States
More power given to the provinces
Defence and foreign affairs remain in the hands of a British Viceroy, ensuring overall British control
The Round Table Conferences
1930 and 1931
Prompted by opposition from the independence movement in India
Gandhi represented the Congress Party at the second
No agreement was reached
British rejected giving self-governing Dominion status for India because of doubts about:
the competence of non-white leaders
India’s strategic and economic importance to Britain
The Government of India Act 2
1935
Created a Federation of India by making the provinces self-governing
Expanded the franchise from 7 million to 35 million people
Never fully implemented due to Second World War
Rejected by Princely States as they wanted to maintain their independence from the rest of India
Opposed by the Congress Party because it didn’t go far enough, and opposed in Britain for going too far
Categories of Britain’s African colonies
Those ruled 'indirectly' by the British through existing local rulers West Africa Uganda League of Nations mandates (economic initiatives)
Those where substantial number of Europeans had settled
British ruled directly through their own officials, with some representation for the white settler population
Kenya
South Africa
Initiatives in colonies under ‘indirect’ British rule
1920 - £3 million in Sudan for the Gezira Cotton Scheme, which built dams and developed irrigation to increase cotton production
1925 - £10 million allocated in East Africa for improving rail and dock facilities
Investment in schools and educational facilities in West Africa
Limit - Had to be funded by taxes collected locally from African
Colonial Development Act
1929
Earmarked £1 million for development projects across the Empire
South Africa
Promise made in 1910, when Dominion status was granted, to protect the right of ethnic minorities eroded
White minority had established its control over South Africa’s internal affairs by the 1930’s
The Statute of Westminster (1931) gave the Dominions legislative autonomy, enabling this white dominance to continue
Aims of British administration of Palestine
Maintain Palestine’s strategic importance as a buffer against potential threats to the Suez Canal
Maintain internal stability
Issues facing the British in Palestine inter-war
Tensions between Jewish and Arab communities
Government in London favoured Jews but authorities in Palestine favoured Arabs
Arabs opposed a two-state solution, wanting a unitary Arab state
1939 - Britain publicly express support for a Jewish state in Palestine
Statute of Westminster
1931
Recognised that:
Dominions should become independent nations
Laws passed in Britain could not be enforced in those countries without the permission of their own parliaments
The Dominion countries could pass their own laws without the approval of Britain
Paved the way for the emergence of the Commonwealth
Portrayed by politicians and the media as evidence of the civilised nature of the British Empire
Can also be regarded as a way of ensuring British global influence, without the costs of imperial rule
Problems relating to imperial defence during the inter-war years
Britain had severe economic difficulties
New aggressive regimes in Europe and Asia posed a direct threat to the British Empire
Rise of nationalist independence movements made the need for military resources more urgent
Economic impact of World War One on Britain
Much of Britain’s capital investment overseas wiped out
The pound had to be removed from the gold standard
Weakened Britain’s export industries, as war was prioritised
Intensified by the Great Depression
Economic impact of World War One on India
India contributed £146 million to the war effort, leading to inflation and shortages during the war
Reduced Indian dependency on British exports, allowing Indian manufacturers to capture more of the domestic market
Indian industry grew as Britain placed high taxes on Indian imports, 11% in 1917 to 25% in 1931
Economic impact of World War One on Canada, Australia and New Zealand
Canada benefitted from the war, emerging as an industrial power
Canada looked to America for investment and markets as British manufacturers lost ground
Australia and New Zealand exported food to Britain, relying heavily on the British market, so were hit hard by the disruption of trade caused by the war
Phases of inter-war trade and commerce
1920’s - Britain tried to recreate the economic system that had existed before 1914 (no imperial preference)
1925 - Britain returned to the gold standard in order to stabilise its international trade
1930’s - Greater emphasis placed on the importance of Empire for British commerce and imports
1931 - Britain abandoned the gold standard
Significance of countries of Empire fixing the value of their currencies to sterling
Reflected their close ties to Britain
Gave access to the British market for countries in the Sterling Area
Ensured a profitable outlet for British overseas investment
Allowed Britain to use the Empire to soften the impact of the Great Depression
British exports to Empire in the late 1920’s / early 1930’s
Exports to Empire, such as cotton, began to fall as competition from other emerging industrial economies (Japan) began to be encountered
Imperialists (Lord Beaverbrook) argued for return of ‘imperial preference’ as world trade shrunk, but was opposed by the Dominions, who wished to protect their own growing industries
Compromise reached at the Ottawa Conference (1932)
Ottowa Conference
1932
British introduced a general 10% tax on imports, but Crown Colonies were exempted
Britain and the Dominions gave each other’s exports preferential treatment in their own market
Reinforced the important role of Empire in supplying food and raw material to Britain
Imperial imports as a percentage of total British imports
1913 - 24.9%
1934 - 35.3%
Value of imperial trade and commerce for the Empire
Australia and New Zealand experienced serious economic problems in the inter-war period
Cost of their imports from Britain outstripped the income from their exports to Britain
Both countries ran up debts with Britain
Imperial preference became especially important for these countries when international trade slumped during the 1930’s as a result of the Great Depression
African colonies, Burma and Malaya hit hard by the Great Depression, leading to poverty and starvation, which fulled dissatisfaction with colonial rule
Impact of World War Two upon British trade
Britain lost 11.7 million tons of shipping, equal to 54% of the country’s merchant fleet strength
Loss of major colonies in South East Asia to the Japanese from 1942 disrupted trade and cut off supplies of raw materials (e.g rubber from Malaya)
Diversion of industrial production to war-time activity meant that less was produced to export, creating trade deficit during the war
1/3 of Britain’s overseas assets (investments in businesses) were sold to pay for the war
Britain borrowed from the USA from 1941 in the form of Lend-Lease, ended in 1945
British post-war loan from America
Negotiated by John Maynard Keynes
Approximately £900 million
Pound forced to be made freely convertible to dollars by 1947
Dual approach to British retention of its colonies post-war
Colonies abandoned where the costs of control outstripped its actual or potential value
India / Burma / Palestine
Colonial economic development emphasised where colonies were regarded as of economic benefit to Britain
e.g Rubber / Tin industry in Malaya
Colonial Development and Welfare Acts (Both had the same name)
1940
Formed the foundation for dual approach to British retention of its colonies post-war
Wrote of some colonial debts
Provided colonial grants or loans of up to £5 million per year
1945
Increased aid available to colonies to £120 million over ten years
Required each colony to produce a ten-year development plan showing how it would use such funds
Gandhi
Emerged after World War One
Began his career campaigning in South Africa between 1893 and 1913
Returned to India to become President of the Indian National Congress in 1915
Began campaigning for full Indian independence following the Amritsar massacre in 1919
Promoted non-violence
Opposed partition of India
Perceived to be too moderate and idealistic by some
Gandhi’s campaigns
Non Co-operation Movement (1920) - swaraj (self-rule)
30k arrested, including Gandhi
Congress became more working-class and less elitist
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-31 and 1932-34)
Quit India Movement (1942)
Beliefs of Gandhi
Peaceful resistance to British rule (satyagraha)
Harmonious relations between Hindus and Muslims
Rejected caste system
Wanted an independent India, which would remain agricultural and rural
Importance of Gandhi
Moral and political leader
Reconciled western ideas of democracy with the notion of a distinctive Indian culture and national identity
Role of colonial administrators during wars and during the inter-war years
Collect taxes
Maintain stability and order in the face of growing nationalist movements
When was the Colonial Office split into two, to form the Dominions Office, and why was this significant?
1925
Meant that three cabinet members were responsible to Parliament for the Commonwealth and Empire
Trusteeship
Idea that colonial administration in the less-developed parts of the Empire were there to protect native interests, foster economic growth and nurture it towards greater self-rule
Leo Amery White Paper
1927
Colonial Secretary
Argued in favour of trusteeship
Colonial administrators following World War One
Edwin Montagu - Secretary of State for India from 1917 to 1922, responsible for Government of India Act 1 (1919)
Lord Linlithgow - Viceroy of India from 1935 to 1943, longest-serving Viceroy, responsible for Government of India Act 2 (1935)
Harry Haig - Appointed to the Viceroy’s Executive Council in 1932. Opposed Gandhi, calling him a “menace”
Empire Marketing Board
1926
Set up by Leo Amery, Secretary of State for Colonies and Dominions
Promoted the consumption in Britain of items produced in the Empire through posters and advertising campaigns
Became even more active following the Great Depression as imperial trade became more important to British economy following decline of intentional trade
Wembley / Glasgow exhibition
Wembley Exhibition - 1924-25
Government contributed half of £2.2 million total cost
Advertised every country of Empire
Fun fair and stadium erected
Intended to give visitors an experience of the British Empire ‘in miniature’
Over 17 million attended in 1924 and 9 million in 1925
Glasgow Exhibition - 1938
Attracted 12 million people
Offered a chance to boost the Scottish economy after the Depression
Other ways in which the empire was promoted
BBC established in 1923 by Lord Reith, taking a strong imperial stance and covering imperial events
Focal point of teaching in schools and universities
Feature films (The Four Feathers - 1939)
Music (Elgar’s ‘Land of Hope and Glory’ - 1924 Empire Exhibition)
King’s Christmas Day broadcasts had a strong imperial flavour
Informal links (relatives living in the empire, former missionaries speaking in churches, relatives serving in the empire in the armed forces)
Protest and conflict in Ireland
Home Rule granted before World War One, but suspended until after the war due to sectarianism
Sinn Fein organised an unsuccessful Easter Rising (1916)
1919 - Sinn Fein established an Irish assembly in Dublin
Sinn Fein declared an Irish Republic, with the Irish Republican Army beginning a guerrilla war against the British (Black and Tans)
Conflict ended in 1921 with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which creates the Irish Free State, a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire
Opposed by Eamon de Valera because it did not create an Irish Republic and involved splitting the country
Southern Ireland gained equality of status in the Statute of Westminster (1931)
Eire formed in 1937 as a republic, and separated entirely from Britain in 1948 through the Republic of Ireland Act
Showed that British imperialism could be successfully challenged
Protest and conflict in India
Anti-British outbursts in Bengal and Punjab
Indian diaspora, headed by the Ghadar Party, encouraged uprisings in India (eg. 1915 Ghadar conspiracy )
Protest evoked by the 1919 Government of India Act, which failed to satisfy nationalist demands, leading to the Rowlatt Acts
Amritsar massacre (1919)
Less violent as a result of Gandhi vs militant Muslim League
Amritsar massacre
April 1919
British troops commanded by Reginald Dyer fired on crowd which had gathered to to protest against the arrest of two nationalist leaders, as well as Sikh pilgrims
379 killed
Damaged Britain’s reputation as a civilising influence
Effects of the Amritsar massacre
Indian Congress politicians claimed that the massacre showed that the British no longer possessed any moral authority to rule
Galvanised Gandhi’s Non Co-operation Movement of 1920-22
Protest and conflict in the Middle East
Revolution in Egypt against British in 1919 after Britain exiled nationalist leader, causing widespread civil obedience encompassing all classes of society
British military bases attacked
800 Egyptians killed and 1,600 wounded
1922 - Egypt granted independence following ‘Milner report’, but refused to recognise Egyptian sovereignty and retained troops in the Suez area
Haganah and Stern Gang (paramilitary force) protected Jewish interests in Palestine
Evidence of attachment between Empire and British institutions between 1914 and 1947
Support during the World Wars
Coronation of George VI in 1937 celebrated
Empire Day celebrated across the Empire
Factions of the Indian nationalism movement
Indian Congress Movement grew in the post-war years in reaction to Britain’s failure to offer the Indians a satisfactory constitutional arrangement in 1918
Nehru sought modernisation and industrialisation, whereas Gandhi favoured an agricultural society
Bose wanted the INC to adopt a more militant line
Jinnah led Muslim League
Far from a unified force
Development of West African nationalism
1919 - National Congress of West Africa
Dominated by educated elite and middle class
Demanded greater representation, but initially ignored
1925 - West African Student’s Union founded
Azikiwe and Nkrumah from the Gold Coast, would emerge as significant post-war nationalist figures
1945 - Pan African Congress convened in Manchester, calling for the ‘autonomy and independence’ of black Africa
Development of East African nationalism
Developed by Harry Thuku
Formed Young Kikuyu (1920), the East African Association (1921) and the Kenya African Union (1946)
1947 - Jomo Kenyatta became President of the KAU
Anglo-Egyptian Treaty
1936
Agreed that British troops would withdraw from Egypt but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal
Allowed: the presence of 10,000 British troops in the Suez Canal Zone
Unlimited numbers of British troops in Egypt in an emergency
Positive effects of imperial preference for Britain
Increased British trade with Empire / Commonwealth
1935-39 - 40% of imports came from Empire, 49% of exports went to Empire
Trade agreements increased imperial cohesion
Negative effects of imperial preference for Britain
Dependency on imperial markets made British industry less competitive in the rest of the world
Britain paid more than it needed to for food and raw materials
State of British economy following the Second World War
Exports = £350 million Imports = £2,000 million Debt = £3,500
Lucknow Pact
December 1916
Agreement between the Hindu Congress and the Muslim League
Cohesive demands to demand Indian autonomy
Gandhi’s Salt March
Part of Gandhi's Civil Disobedience Movement March-April 1930 (24 days) 400km from Sabamati to Dandi beach Excluded women and all but two Muslims 80 marchers
Halibut treaty
1923
Signed between the United States and Canada
Set a precedent that dominions were no longer see as subordinates, but as equals, as they could negotiate on an international stag on their own
Devonshire Declaration
1923
Stated Britain’s determination to protect the rights of native Africans versus the wishes of white colonists (Kenya)
