Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

RESS 3 > RESS 3 > Flashcards

RESS 3 Flashcards

1
Q

what is a case-control study

A

selects participants on the basis of their outcome and works back to their exposure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what is a cohort study

A

longitudinal study following. group of people over time, recording subsequent events

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

what is randomised controlled trial

A

participants randomised to treatment groups - minimises bias

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

what is meta-analysis

A

combines the quantitive results from multiple studies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

define research

A

generates new knowledge where there is no / limited research evidence available, and which has the potential to be generalisable and transferable

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

define audit

A

a quality improvement process which seeks to improve patient care and outcome through systematic review of care against explicit criteria and the implementation of change

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

define clinical audit

A

A study exploring whether healthcare practice achieves a particular standard/guideline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

clinical audit vs service evaluation

A

audit: does this service reach a certain standard?

service evaluation: what standard might this service achieve?

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

define audit cum service evaluations

A

we can interested in whether variation in patient characteristics or the characteristics of healthcare delivery might influence whether a patient receives standard/recommended care

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

define ethics

A

what is morally correct

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

define governance

A

what has received permission

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

define wellbeing

A

studies improve burdens and risks - we can’t to not let the risks outweigh the benefits and protect the patient’s wellbeing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

define rights

A

studies require informed consent - participation should be informed, voluntary and reversible

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

the role of ethics and governance approval

A

Ethics and governance procedures aim to ensure that no human (and many animal-based) studies take place without ensuring appropriate measures are in place

Ethics approval is particularly important/useful when the study’s participants are unable to consent

Ethical review ensures that the burdens and risks have been assessed, and that the consent proposed is considered appropriate to protect the rights of participants

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

what is engagement

A

where information about research is provided and disseminated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

what is participation

A

where people take part in a research study

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

what is involvement

A

where members of the public are actively engaged in shaping research projects

  • ‘Research carried out ‘with’ and ‘by’ members of the public rather than ‘to’ ‘about’ or ‘for’ them.’
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

examples of engagement

A
  • social media
  • newsletters
  • websites and blogs
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

why do PPIE (patient and public involvement / engagement) research?

A
  • ensures a patient focussed outcome
  • involving patients helps together funding
  • benefits to participants
  • lets the patient have a voice
  • patients offer a different yet important viewpoint
  • sense of community to patients who share experiences
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

how and when to involve people

A
  • research design
  • development of the grant application
  • undertaking/management of research
  • analysis of data
  • dissemination of research findings
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

role of NICE

A
  • To reduce variation in the availability and quality of treatments and care
  • Help resolve uncertainty about which medicines and treatments work best and which represent best value for money for the NHS
  • Set national standards on how people with certain conditions should be treated
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

NICE’s core principles

A
  • scientific rigour
  • inclusiveness
  • transparency
  • independence
  • challenge
  • review
  • support for implementation
  • timeliness
(SITICRST)
Smart
Irresponsible
Thoughtful
Islands
Control
Retro
Swollen
Twigs
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

what are NICE clinical guidelines

A
  • broad guidance covering management of a particular condition (the care pathway)
  • considers clinical and cost-effectiveness and patient/care perspective
  • recommendations are advisory, not mandatory
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

what are evidence based clinical NICE guidelines

A

a comprehensive set of recommendations for a particular disease or condition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

what are guideline based quality standards - NICE

A

a prioritised, concise set of statements (usually 6-8) with associated measurable indicators, chosen and adapted from the clinical guideline recommendations
- benchmarks of best practice

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

what are covariates

A

what causes the outcome?
what causes the exposure?
what are potentially caused by the exposure?

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

what are cofounders

A

cause both the outcome and the exposure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

why do we need to adjust cofounders?

A

They created pseudo-causal pathways between the outcome and the exposure, which will generate a statistical relationship between the two, even when none exists

29
Q

what are mediators?

A

they cause the outcome and are caused by the exposure

30
Q

do we adjust for mediators?

A

no - they are part of the casual path between the outcome and the exposure

31
Q

what are competing exposures

A

cause the outcome, but have no relationship with the exposure

32
Q

do we adjust for competing exposures?

A

yes because they cause a substantial amount of variation in the exposure - adjusting this out can make any association between the remainder and the exposure easier to detect

33
Q

primary data

A

data which has been generated by the researcher e.g., surveys, interviews, experiments

34
Q

secondary data

A

data that was formerly collected for other purposes than that of the current research study

35
Q

define exposure

A

modifiable variation in clinical practice

36
Q

defie outcome

A

clinical standard / guideline

37
Q

3 steps of data collection

A
  • decide which variables you need to measure
  • consider where to source your variables
  • choose between different sources of the same variable
38
Q

prospective studies

A

record/measure variables during the study period, with the outcome subsequently measured

39
Q

examples of prospective studies

A

cohort studies

cross-sectional studies

40
Q

retrospective studies

A

record/measure the outcome and then look back to record/measure the exposure and co-variants

41
Q

examples of retrospective studies

A

case-control studies

cross-sectional studies

42
Q

pros of prospective data

A
  • more accurate data regarding exposures, confounders, outcomes and covariates
  • less bias
43
Q

cons of prospective data

A
  • time and resource intensive
  • expensive
  • usually infeasible for rare outcomes
44
Q

pros of retrospective studies

A
  • less time and resource intensive

- allows oversampling for rare outcomes

45
Q

cons for retrospective studies

A
  • more susceptible to bias
  • existing data may be of poor quality
  • if data from records, little control over how these are measured
46
Q

importance of recognising sources of measurement errors

A

helps to…

  • minimise errors and improve accuracy / validity when measuring variables
  • select the most accurate variable available
47
Q

what is missingness

A

the data value that is not stored for a variable in the observation of interest

48
Q

how does missingness affect data

A

it reduces the number of participants on whom you have complete data

49
Q

define sample

A

comprises data drawl from a specified context or population

50
Q

what is a target population

A

the total, finale population of people/contexts

51
Q

what is simple random sampling

A

When a sample of size n from a population of size N is drawn so that every possible sampling unit has an equal chance of selection

52
Q

what is stratified sampling

A
  • population is divided into homogenous strata according to a demographic factor
  • randomly sample from the target population within the strata
53
Q

what is opportunistic sampling

A

taking the most accessible or willing persons - e.g., people walking sown the street

54
Q

what is the multivariable regression model

A

helps to indicate if there is an association between an outcome and exposure adjusting for cofounders

55
Q

what are nuisance variables

A

can undermine the interpretation of the associations, but we can adjust for these to eliminate or reduce their influence

56
Q

examples of nuisance variables

A

confounders and competing exposures

57
Q

odds ratio interpretation: OR = 1

A

The odds in exposed group is the same as the odds in unexposed group

58
Q

odds ratio interpretation: OR < 1

A

The odds in exposed group is less than the odds in unexposed group

59
Q

Odds Ratios (OR) > 1

A

The odds in exposed group is higher than the odds in unexposed group

60
Q

misspecification

A

incorrectly specified multivariable regression model

61
Q

model misspecification in terms of non-linear relationships

A

The relationship between the outcome variable and exposure variable maybe non-linear and we fit a linear regression line

62
Q

model misspecification in terms of omitted variable bias

A

Occurs when relevant variables e.g., confounders are left out in a multivariable regression model resulting in confounding bias

  • associations are made without adjustment for confounders
  • confounders may generate sprier associations
63
Q

model misspecification in terms of omitting competing exposures

A

competing exposures may cause the outcome, but have no relationship with the exposure
- we must therefore adjust for these as they cause a substantial amount of variation in the exposure and so adjusting out can make any association between the remainder and the exposure easier to detect

64
Q

model misspecification in terms of adjustment bias

A

controlling for an intermediate variable or mediator in multivariable regression analysis
- we can investigate the total effect of exposure on outcome using regression analysis without adjusting for the mediator

65
Q

what is multi-collinearity / collinearity

A

occurs when there is strong associations or correlations among covariates in a multivariable regression model

66
Q

what is heterogeneity bias

A

occurs when there are natural group structures in the data and there are differences in the groups which are correlated with the study variable
- overall regression analysis shows a positive association but in stratified analyses, there is a negative association

67
Q

how to categorise covariates

A

convert continuous data to two groups (dichotomising - binary split at the median)
- leads to a comparison of groups of individuals with high or low values of the measurement

68
Q

advantages of dichotomising

A

analyses or presentation of results will be simplified

69
Q

disadvantages of dichotomising

A
  • information loss

- conceals any non-linearity in the relation between the exposure and outcome

RESS 3 (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions