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RESS 3 > qs > Flashcards

qs Flashcards

1
Q

When do you not reference?

A
  • When it is considered common knowledge
  • Where it is your own opinion
  • When it is your own data / research
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2
Q

How many authors should be listed as ‘et al’

A

6/7

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3
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A
  • Sample set into groups
  • Then chosen at random from these groups
  • Ensures all populations make up the sample and are represented
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4
Q

What is quota sampling?

A
  • Sample taken from a stratified population until a pre-assigned quota in each stratum is represented
  • Not random
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5
Q

When is quota sampling useful?

A
  • Quick, cheap

- When detail isn’t important

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6
Q

what is cluster sampling

A
  • simple random sampling within each cluster

- used when ‘natural’ but relatively homogenous grouping are evident in a population (e.g., regions in the UK)

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7
Q

what is categorical data

A
  • normal or ordinal
  • distinct categories
  • do not have a numerical value
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8
Q

how can ordinal data be made numerical?

A

assigning a rank scale value to each category

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9
Q

ordinal vs nominal data

A

nominal: no natural order e.g., sex
ordinal: have natural order e.g., poor, good, excellent

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10
Q

what type of data would the number of cases of MRSA on a particular ward be classed as?

A

numerical discrete

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11
Q

what type of data is age?

A

numerical continuous

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12
Q

what is relative frequency

A

the % of the total frequency accounted for by particular variables

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13
Q

what does a low s.d indicate?

A

the data points lie close to the mean

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14
Q

how is incidence rate calculated

A

number of new cases occurring in a set period of time / number of people at risk in this time (e.g., exposed people)

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15
Q

what is included in the epidemiological triad

A

time
place
person

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16
Q

diseases with short duration incidence and prevalence rates

A

high incidence

low prevalence

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17
Q

how is mortality rate calculated

A

number of people who die from the disease / number of people who die from all causes in a set period of time

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18
Q

how is data adjusted for (e.g., for age, gender)

A

Stratum specific rates - population split into stratum (age,gender)
Incidence calculated in each, weighting then assigned to each group & data adjusted accordingly

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19
Q

how is case fatality calculated

A

No. Of people who die for a disease In period / no. Of people with the disease

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20
Q

how are odds ratios calculated

A

Odds for disease of exposed group / odds of disease of unexposed group

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21
Q

what are dichotomous variables

A

The variable takes 1 of 2 forms (that are co merely different) e.g. Dead or alive

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22
Q

what type of data are histograms used for?

A

numerical continuous

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23
Q

what is the use of IQR

A

Able to form a graphical representation of probability distribution (box plot)

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24
Q

In normally distributed data what measure would you use to look at spread of data ?

A

mean and standard deviation

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25
Q

what measure of distribution should be used in non normally distributed data

A

median and IQR (so that it is not affected by outliers) plotted on a histogram

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26
Q

what does a 95% confidence interval mean?

A

If the experiment were repeated 100 times the results would fall into that range 95 times

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27
Q

what is standard error a measure of?

A

How reliable the sample population mean is from that of the population, so measures precision

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28
Q

The CI should not cross the value where the variable is said to have no effect. Where are the points of no impact in ratio and difference

A 
ratio = 1
difference = 0
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29
Q

When is correlation the appropriate statistical analysis

A

When both the outcome and exposure are numerical

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30
Q

If the outcome is numerical, and the exposure is categorical (independent groups) what is the appropriate statistical analysis?

A

T test

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31
Q

A hypothesis proposed after analysis is which type of hypothesis?

A

Inductive hypothesis - explanation as why two sets of info are related to one another

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32
Q

What is a deductive hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis proposed before analysis - predict what the relationship will be. You think that at least 2 variables are related to each other

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33
Q

If data is positively skewed, which way will its ‘tail’ be on a box plot?

A

tail to the right

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34
Q

When refining a search, what function does adding an asterisk (*) to the end of a word have?

A

Denotes a truncated ending where alternative endings would be accepted
e.g. Teen* would show up teenage, teenagers, teenager, teens

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35
Q

What are Boolean operators ? Give examples

A

Words used to refine searches, e.g. AND, OR, NOT

36
Q

what type of study is a census

A

Cross sectional - looks at entire population at defined time assessing prevalence

37
Q

what is responsiveness

A

Whether a measure can detect real change (over time?)

38
Q

what is regression analysis

A

Statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables

39
Q

What is a type 1 error ?

A

The incorrect rejection of a true NULL hypothesis- false positive for alternative hypothesis (too optimistic)

40
Q

What is a type 2 error ?

A

Failure to reject a false NULL hypothesis- false negative for alternative hypothesi s(Too pessimistic)

41
Q

What is chi squared used for ?

A

Determine association between categorical variables

42
Q

How is standard error calculated ?

A

Standard deviation/square root of sample size

43
Q

What happens after you propose a hypothesis?

A

Test it - then reject and modify or not reject

44
Q

Define population

A

Every member of a defined group of interest

45
Q

What is the only true random sample?

A

Simple random sample - population members are chosen purely a random

46
Q

What is interval sampling?

A

When you take samples at set intervals

e.g drugs company take a sample of every 100th drug produced to check that it’s being made correctly

47
Q

What type of variable is the number of a beds on a ward?

A

Numerical discrete

48
Q

What type of variable is weight or height?

A

numerical continuous

49
Q

For what type of data would you use a bar chart?

A

Categorical and discrete metric variables

50
Q

For what type of data would you use a pie chart?

A

Categorical, may be used for numerical data

51
Q

What is cumulative frequency?

A

the running total

52
Q

How do you calculate frequency density?

A

Freq density = frequency / class width

53
Q

examples of measures of spread

A

range, IQR, s.d

54
Q

examples of measures of central tendency

A

mean, median, mode

55
Q

Negative skew would result in the greatest spread in what quartile on a box plot?

A

lower quartile

56
Q

Which type of skew would give these results; Q1-Q2 > Q2-Q3?

A

negative skew

57
Q

What phase of a clinical trial assesses effectiveness and dosage of drugs on a few hundred patients WITH the disease?

A

phase 2

58
Q

What is a consensus study?

A

A consensus statement developed by professionals via a group consensus process that is intended to advance health professional and/or public understanding of a targeted health problem.

59
Q

In what type of paper/article/study would you write a short paper discussing any of these 4 things; updating readers on new methods, providing an overview of the topics in an issue, press opposing opinions or clarifying positions?

A

editorial

60
Q

What do p-values mean?

A

P = probability of obtaining the results of the test given that the null hypothesis is true

61
Q

How do you calculate prevalence?

A

= Number of people with a disease at a certain time / number of people in the population that time

62
Q

How to calculate risk?

A

Risk = number of new cases / number at risk

63
Q

In what type of study do you use a risk ratio?

A

cohort - use to find risk factors of a disease

64
Q

In what type of study would you use odds ratio?

A

case-control study

65
Q

What is relative risk reduction?

A

RRR = 100 - RR. Essentially its the difference the new treatment makes to the condition (compared to old/untreated group)

66
Q

how to calculate the odds of an event

A

odds = probability of an event (disease) / probability of the event NOT occurring

67
Q

how to calculate odds ratio

A

OR = odds of disease for exposed group / odds for disease in unexposed group.= probability of disease occurring in exposed group / probability of disease NOT occurring in unexposed group

68
Q

Do larger or smaller studies have a larger CI?

A

Smaller studies = large CI

Large studies = small CI (larger studies reduce spread of data and inc the accuracy of the result in relation to population)

69
Q

Which type of health prevention is this; prevention of disease by treating clinical cases, reducing disability and maximising function?

A

Tertiary prevention

70
Q

define reliabliity

A

gives the same result on retesting

71
Q

r = -1 then what is the correlation?

A

perfect negative correlation

72
Q

‘r’ is what coefficient?

A

Pearson correlation coefficient. Values lie between -1 & 1

73
Q

If T statistic in T test is more than critical value = reject or accept the null hypothesis?

A

Reject the null hypothesis

74
Q

What term described this definition ‘can detect real changes when they occur’?

A

responsiveness

75
Q

What three key things should health outcomes be?

A

valid
reliable
responsive

76
Q

Type of efficacy described as ‘production that matches the consumer demand’?

A

allocative efficacy

77
Q

Term used to described this statement ‘concerned with the fairness or justice of the distributions of costs and benefits’

A

Equity - another criterion for allocating resources, who benefits may matter to society.

78
Q

Type of efficacy described as ‘obtaining maximum output from a set of given resources’?

A

Technical efficacy - is concerned with how best to deliver a programme, or achieve a given objective

79
Q

When do you not need ethical approval?

A

audits / evaluations

80
Q

Benefits of knowing health outcomes?

A
  • identify treats and procedures that work and which are less effective
  • identify national and international variation
  • monitor performance against targets and over time
81
Q

covariates

A

confounders or competing exposures

82
Q

what are confounders

A

A covariate that precedes both the ‘exposure’ and the ‘outcome’

83
Q

what are competing exposures

A

covariates that compete with the exposure for the outcome

84
Q

what is a mediator

A

a variable which comes after the exposure but before the outcome

85
Q

what are clinical guidelines and quality standards

A

Clinical guidelines constitute recommendations for strengthening practice, while quality standards are benchmarks for auditing ‘best practice’

RESS 3 (2 decks)

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