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CRS 1 > Respritory system > Flashcards

Respritory system Flashcards

1
Q

What structures can be found in the mediastinum? (6)

A
  • Heart
  • Phrenic nerve
  • Cardiac nerves
  • Vessels
  • Oesophagus
  • Trachea
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2
Q

Name the lobes in a dogs lung

A
  • Left cranial lobe cranial and caudal part
  • Right cranial lobe
  • Right middle lobe
  • Left and right caudal lobes
  • Accessory lobe
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3
Q

Where in the body can the thoracic duct be found?

A

In the mediastinum

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4
Q

What two membranes make up the pleura?

A
  • parietal pleura split into mediastinal and costal

- Visceral pleura

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5
Q

Describe the process of inspiration (6)

A
  • External intercostal muscles contract
  • ribs expand
  • Volume in the lungs increase
  • diaphragm contracts and flattens further increasing volume
  • pressure decreases
  • air I forced into the lungs
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6
Q

Describe the process of expiration (6)

A
  • Internal intercostal muscles contracts
  • ribs are moved in
  • volume in lungs decreases
  • diaphragm relaxes and expands further decreasing the volume
  • pressure increases
  • air leaves the lungs
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7
Q

What nerve innervates the diaphragm?

A

Phrenic nerve

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8
Q

What hiatuses are present in the diaphragm and what runs through them?

A
  • Aortic hiatus - aorta
  • Oesophageal hiatus - oesophagus
  • Caval formamen - vena cava
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9
Q

Where does the diaphragm attach?

A
  • cranial ventral border of L4 and the body of L3
  • oblique attachment to 13th-8th rib
  • xiphoid cartilage
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10
Q

How would you oscillate the lung fields?

A

Lungs don’t extend past the last rib so start in the last rib space and move cranially and listen most sides

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11
Q

How would you place a thoracic catheter and check its in the right place?

A

Insert the tube in the 10th intercostal space and tunnel subcutaneously to the 8th intercostal space. push through the intercostal muscles into the pleural cavity. radiograph to check position

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12
Q

How are the lungs able to move with the ribs even though they are not connected to them?

A

Changes in thoracic volume are translated to changes in lung volume via the pleura

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13
Q

Why does the cross sectional area of the right and left bronchi always increase that of the trachea?

A

Because resistance must not increases

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14
Q

What is the structure of bronchial smooth muscle?

A

Spiral bands of muscle that criss cross right and left around the bronchi and bronchioles

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15
Q

What is the importance of the bronchial muscles?

A

They regulate diameter an length to balance anatomical dead space against resistance to air flow

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16
Q

What is the importance of surfactant?

A

increases lung compliance by reducing surface tension

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17
Q

How is ventilation regulated?

A

A stimulus is detected and signals are sent to the brain to stimulate the muscles of ventilation less or more

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18
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

The normal amount of air displaced when inhaling and exhaling

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19
Q

What is minute ventilation and how is it calculated?

A

The volume of air inspired or expired per minute, tidal volume X frequency

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20
Q

What are the effects of ventilation perfusion mismatching?

A

It impairs gas exchange and could cause hypoxia or hypercapnia

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21
Q

How is perfusion effected by posture?

A

When a dog stands, half of the lung volume is above the pulmonary trunk, so perfusion in this area will be lower as blood must be pumped against gravity

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22
Q

What mechanisms can limit ventilation?

A
  • Resistance to flow in airways
  • Lung compliance
  • Alveolar surface tension
  • Where about the lungs is positioned
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23
Q

What is lung compliance?

A

The ability of the lung to stretch

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24
Q

What is expiratory reserve volume?

A

Amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal expiration

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25
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

The amount of air that can be further inhaled after a normal inhalation

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26
Q

What is residual volume?

A

The air still left in the lungs after a forced exhalation

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27
Q

What is vital capacity and how is it calculated?

A

The maximum amount of air that can be moved into or out of the lungs in a single respiratory cycle, ERV + IRV + TV

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28
Q

What is inspiratory capacity and how is it calculated?

A

Total volume of air that can be inhaled, TV + IRV

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29
Q

What is functional residual capacity and how is it calculated?

A

Volume of air remaining after a normal expiration, ERV + RV

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30
Q

What is alveolar ventilation

A

The amount of gas that reaches the alveoli in a normal breath

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31
Q

what is dead space?

A

The volume of breath that doesn’t take part in gas exchange

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32
Q

What is minute ventilation?

A

Volume of gas inhaled and exhaled in a minute

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33
Q

What is respiratory rate?

A

breaths per minute

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34
Q

What is the forced expiratory rate?

A

How much air can be forced out of the lungs per second

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35
Q

What is total lung capacity and how is it calculated?

A

The total volume of air the lungs can accommodate, RV + IRV + TV + ERV

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36
Q

Which lung volumes may change during exercise? (6)

A
  • Tidal volume
  • IRV
  • ERV
  • FRC
  • Respiration rate
  • Minute ventilation
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37
Q

What medical conditions may involve ventilation perfusion mismatching? (4)

A
  • Asthma
  • Pneumonia
  • Pulmonary edema
  • Airway obstruction
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38
Q

Describe the neurological control of ventilation? (5)

A
  • peripheral chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies detect changes in PO2,PCO2,H+,K+
  • information sent from carotid body via Cn IX
  • information sent from aortic body via Cn X
  • Central chemoreceptors in medullary surface detect PCO2 changes
  • information sent via phrenic nerve to alter muscles of ventilation
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39
Q

What are the four metabolic functions of the lungs and which cells are responsible for this function?

A

-Angiotensin I-II conversion
-Breakdown of norepinephrine
-Breakdown of bradykinins
-degredation of prostaglandin
Neuroendocrine cells and enzymes

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40
Q

What are the main nerve supplies to the horn? (3)

A
  • Cornual
  • Corneal branch of infratrochlear
  • Cutaneous branches from 1st and second cervical vertebrae
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41
Q

What are the main blood supplies to the horn? (3)

A
  • Maxillary artery
  • Cornual artery
  • Superficial temporal artery
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42
Q

Which sinus is connected to the horn? and which compartment of this sinus is the horn connected to in cattle?

A

Frontal sinus, Caudal compartment of the frontal sinus

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43
Q

What is the clinical relevance of the horn being connected to a sinus?

A

When dehorning the sinus is exposed, leaving it open for infection

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44
Q

Why do you have to be careful dehorning goat kids?

A

The frontal sinus is very small and a small amount of heat can damage the brain

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45
Q

Within which sinus does the nasolacrimal duct run? What other structures can be found within this sinus?

A

Maxillary, teeth

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46
Q

Describe the sinus drainage of a horse (5)

A
  • Dorsal conchal sinus and frontal sinus drain into frontomaxillary aperture
  • Which drains into the caudamaxillary sinus which also provides the drainage for the sphenopalatine
  • this drains into the nasomaxillay opening which receives input from the ventral conchal and rostral maxillary
  • this drains into the middle meatus which receives input from the ethmoidal
  • this drains into the sinus drainage angle
47
Q

What is the role of the nasal structures? (7)

A
  • Warm air
  • Moisten air
  • olfaction
  • trap small particles with mucus
  • trap large particles
  • resist airflow
  • heat exchange to cool arterial blood.
48
Q

What structures protect the respiratory tract from infection?

A
  • coughing and sneezing
  • cilia
  • mucous in trachea
  • lymphoid tissue
  • mucus in nasal tissue
49
Q

How is fitness measured?

A

using Vo2max

50
Q

What is VO2max?

A

The maximum capacity to transport and utilise oxygen during incremental exercise

51
Q

How do you calculate vo2max?

A

maximum ml of oxygen consumed in a minute/body weight in grams

52
Q

What defence mechanisms are present in the respiratory system? (5)

A
  • commensals
  • nose hairs
  • mucus
  • lymph tissue
  • reflexes
53
Q

What are the major lymph nodes of the head? (4)

A
  • Mandibular
  • Retropharyngeal
  • tonsil
  • parotif
54
Q

What are the 2 main lymph nodes of the neck?

A

superficial and deep cervical

55
Q

What are the 4 main lymph nodes of the thorax?

A

dorsal and ventral thoracic, mediastinal, bronchial

56
Q

Explain the mechanisms of allergic bronchoconstriction (5)

A
  • Antigen or allergen presence
  • inflammation develops
  • IGE binds to mast cells and basophils which release granules
  • inflammatory mediates like histamine cause smooth muscle contraction
  • bronchoconstriction and coughing occurs
57
Q

What types of cells are present in the respiratory system to act as defence? (4)

A
  • Cilia
  • Goblet cells
  • Antibodies in mucosa
  • lymphocytes
58
Q

Define cyanosis

A

Blue skin and/or mucus membranes due to poor circulation or inadequate oxygenation of blood

59
Q

State some causes of cyanosis (4)

A
  • pneumonia
  • hypoventilation
  • Brachycephalic airway problems
  • heart abnormalities
60
Q

Define hypoxia

A

a reduced amount of oxygen in the tissues

61
Q

State some of the causes of hypoxia (5)

A
  • Reduced ability of blood to get to tissues
  • Reduced ability to carry oxygen in the blood
  • reduced intake of oxygen
  • reduced diffusion of oxygen from the lungs into blood
  • Reduced ability of oxygen to leave haemoglobin
62
Q

How can hypoxia be diagnosed? (4)

A
  • Blood gas analyser
  • Cyanosis
  • Pule oximetry
  • lactate levels
63
Q

What are the physiological compensation effects of hypoxia?

A
  • Decreased arterial pO2
  • Increased activity on peripheral chemoreceptors
  • Increased activity of respiratory centre
  • increased ventilation
64
Q

How can hypoxia and hypercapnia be managed? (2)

A
  • ventilate

- manage the underlying disease

65
Q

Why shouldn’t you give respiratory stimulants to a hypoxic or hypercapnic animal?

A

increase heart rate will increase oxygen demand to the heart making the situation worse

66
Q

Define hypercapnia

A

increase amount of arterial carbon dioxide

67
Q

What are the 2 main causes of hypercapnia?

A
  • Decreased amount of gas exchange

- increased carbon dioxide production from respiring tissues

68
Q

What are the physiological compensation mechanisms for hypercapnia? (5)

A
  • increased arterial CO2
  • increased pCO2 and so H+ in extracellular fluid in brain
  • Increased activity of central chemoreceptors
  • increased activity of respiratory centre
  • hyperventilation
69
Q

What is the cascade for oxygen diffusion? (4)

A
  • mitochondria
  • even flow
  • reduced PO2
  • Increased pCO2
70
Q

What is the driving force for the reaction between oxygen and haemoglobin?

A

The oxygen tension in the pulmonary capillaries

71
Q

What does ficks law of diffusion say?

A

the rate of transfer of a gas through a tissue sheet is proportional to the tissue area and the difference in partial pressure between the two sides, and indirectly proportional to the tissue thickness

72
Q

What three factors affect perfusion in the lungs?

A
  • PO2
  • Alveolar ventilation
  • O2 utilisation
73
Q

Which factors govern diffusion at the tissues? (3)

A
  • carboxyhaemoglobin
  • methaemoglobinemia
  • abnormal Hb molecules
74
Q

What does the oxygen haemoglobin curve plot?

A

Oxygen saturation on the Y axis and partial pressure of oxygen on the X

75
Q

What shape is the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve and why is it this shape?

A

Sigmoid shape due to cooperative binding of oxygen

76
Q

How does bronchoconstriction occur? (5)

A
  • increased stimulation of parasympathetic nerves
  • M3 receptors activated
  • decrease in cellular CAMP
  • increase mucus secretion and bronchial smooth muscle contraction
  • M1 receptors activated which increase mucus secretion
77
Q

How does bronchodilation occur? (4)

A
  • increased sympathetic stimulation
  • Activation of B2 adrenoreceptors
  • increase in cellular CAMP
  • dilation of the airways
78
Q

What methods can be used for inhaled drug delivery? (4)

A
  • jet nebulisers
  • spacer devices
  • metered dose inhalers
  • ultrasonic nebulisers
79
Q

What are the three metabolic functions of the lungs?

A
  • conversion of angiotensin I to II
  • degredation of prostaglandins
  • breakdown of norepinephrine
80
Q

Where can the peripheral chemoreceptors be found and by which nerve are they innervated?

A

Aortic arch - vagus and carotid bodies - glossopharyngeal

81
Q

Where can the peripheral baroreceptors be found and by which nerve are they innervated?

A

Aortic arch - vagus and carotid sinus - glossopharyngeal

82
Q

How can lower and upper airway disease be distinguished?

A

Upper usually shows nasal and/or ocular discharge and lower usually shows dyspnea

83
Q

Describe how a cough occurs (3)

A
  • receptors in the mucus membranes detect a stimulus
  • they cause a maximal inspiration and a forced exhalation against a closed glottis
  • bronchial smooth muscle also contracts
84
Q

What is bronchoconstriction?

A

A narrowing of the airways which restricts breathing

85
Q

does bronchodilation affect compliance?

A

No

86
Q

What are some of the ventilation issues during anaesthesia? (3)

A
  • causes relaxation of pharyngeal muscles so swallowing
  • causes relaxation of the tongue which can obstruct
  • affects respiratory centres
87
Q

What are the effects of recumbency on ventilation?

A

the weight of the lungs can reduce the amount of air that flows through them

88
Q

What is a circuit factor?

A

A term used to describe the amount by which a tidal volume is multiplied in order to administer the correct amount of gas

89
Q

Why is a circuit factor important?

A

It ensures the patient receives the right amount of gas

90
Q

How would you calculate a fresh gas requirement with a T-piece? (3)

A
  • estimate tidal volume
  • calculate minute volume
  • multiply answer by circuit factor
91
Q

What is albuterol?

A

it is a beta-2 adrenergic agonist that causes bronchodilation

92
Q

What 2 cat breeds are predisposition to asthma?

A

Siamese and himalayan breeds

93
Q

How many joints does the rib make with the vertebrae and what are these joints?

A

2, one to the vertebrae body via the neck and one to the transverse process of the more caudal vertebrae via the tubercle

94
Q

which direction do the fibres of the external intercostal muscles run?

A

caudoventrally

95
Q

Where can the intercostal vein/artery/nerve be found in relation to the ribs?

A

Just caudal to each rib and parallel

96
Q

What nerve supplies to diaphragm?

A

phrenic

97
Q

What holes are present in the diaphragm?

A
  • aoritc hiatus
  • oesphageal hiatus
  • cavel foramen
98
Q

which part of the diaphragm is tendinous?

A

The inside

99
Q

What is the function of the pleural cavity?

A

To establish adhesion, smooth movement, help the lung flow the movement of the diaphragm and thoracic wall

100
Q

Where abouts in the skull does the hyoid apparatus join?

A

The temporal bone

101
Q

Name the hyoid bones from dorsal to ventral (6)

A 
Tympanohyoid
Stylohyoid
Epihyoid
Ceratohyoid
Basihyoid
Thyrohyoid
102
Q

What three intrinsic muscles are important in respiration and phonation?

A
  • Cricoaryteniodeus lateralis
  • cricoarytenoideus dorsalis
  • cricothyroideus
103
Q

What nerve supplies motor innervation to the cricothyroideus?

A

Cranial laryngeal from the vagus

104
Q

What nerve innervates all the laryngeal muscles except the cricothyroideus?

A

recurrent laryngeal from vagus

105
Q

What is the role of the cricoartenoideus lateralis?

A

To close the glottis

106
Q

What is the role of the cricoaretenoideus dorsalis?

A

To widen the glottis

107
Q

What mechanisms occur during swallowing?

A
  • larynx moves rostral and dorsal
  • epiglottis tilts back
  • arytenoid cartilages move towards each other
108
Q

What is the difference between where the larynx in found in horses ruminants and birds, and other species

A

found between the rami of the mandible in horses whereas its in the neck in other species

109
Q

What joints are present between the laryngeal cartilages? and what types of joints are these?

A

-cricothyroid
-cricoarytenoid
synovial

110
Q

What two important ligaments of the aretynoid cartilages are present, which is more medial?

A
  • most medial, vocal fold

- vestibular fold

111
Q

What structures pass through the guttural pouch? (5)

A
  • Cn 7.9.10.11
  • internal carotid artery
  • internal maxillary artery
  • pharyngeal lymph nodes
  • stylohyoid
112
Q

What connects the guttural pouch to the pharynx?

A

auditory tube

113
Q

what is viborgs triangle and what structures make it up?

A

The cutaneous landmarks for the guttural pouch, tendon of the sternocephalicus, lunguofacial vein, caudal border of mandible

CRS 1 (12 decks)

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