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Structure And Function Of Living Organisms > Respiratory systems > Flashcards

Respiratory systems Flashcards

1
Q

What is partial pressure

A

pressure of a single gas in a gas mixture

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2
Q

What factors affect the rate of diffusion

A

partial pressure gradient, diameter of the gas molecules, temperature, solubility of the gas in liquid, thickness of the gas exchange surface, surface area

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3
Q

Ficks law to calculate rate of diffusion

A

diffusion coefficient x surface area x (partial pressure difference/thickness of interface)

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4
Q

What does the respiratory system consist of

A

specialized body surfaces for gas exchange, mechanisms to ventilate the environmental face of this surface, mechanisms to perfuse the internal face of this surface

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5
Q

What is required when an organisms does not have a specialized system

A

thin, moist integument

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6
Q

What features do respiratory organs have

A

large surface area, thin barrier, a partial pressure difference that forces O2 in and CO2 out

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7
Q

What features do animals in liquid environments have

A

gills are highly branched and folded extensions to maximise surface area, thin tissue, new medium flows continuously over surfaces

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8
Q

What features do animals in gaseous environments have

A

Invaginations (protects the respiratory surface), increased internal surface area, thin tissue (minimizes diffusion path length)

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9
Q

What does the trachea branch into

A

bronchus then bronchioles than alveoli for gas exchange

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10
Q

where is the diaphragm located

A

between the thorax and abdomen

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11
Q

Function of the dead space

A

Transfer of gases to/from alveoli, warming and humidify in inspired air, filtration and removal of foreign material(protection - muscus/cilia)

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12
Q

what is tidal ventilation

A

the volume of air moved in and out while breathing

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13
Q

What are the consequences of tidal ventilation

A

Incoming air mixes with ā€˜usedā€™ gas, reserve provides reservoir of O2, dead space does not participate in gas exchange

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14
Q

what does air entering the lungs ventilate

A

both the dead space and the alveoli

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15
Q

how do you calculate the minute ventilation of the entire lung

A

dead space volume + amount of fresh air available for gas exchange

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16
Q

How do you calculate the amount of fresh air available for gas exchange

A

(tidal volume-dead space) x breathing rate

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17
Q

how do you calculate the tidal volume

A

dead space volume + amount of fresh air available for gas exchange

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18
Q

How can the amount of fresh air available for gas exchange be increased

A

increasing the tidal volume or by increasing the respiratory frequency

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19
Q

How do birds maximise gas exchange

A

Using unidirectional airflow so incoming air does not mix with stale air

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20
Q

What is the primary role of the respiratory system

A

Meet the metabolic demands of the organism

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21
Q

What is ventilation

A

Convection of respiratory medium over the gas exchange surfaces (active or passive) which maintains a partial pressure gradient at the respiratory interface

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22
Q

Intrapleural space at rest

A

pressure is lower than surroundings inside the space creating a pressure gradient for the alveoli

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23
Q

Lungs at rest

A

expand to fill thoracic cavity because intrapleural pressure is negative (with respect to atmospheric pressure)

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24
Q

What is functional residual capacity

A

The volume remaining in the lungs after a normal, passive exhalation.

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25
Q

Functional residual capacity at rest

A

Increased compared to when someone is exercising or standing

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26
Q

When does ventilation occur

A

When active muscle force is applied to the relaxed respiratory system

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27
Q

What happens during inspiration

A

Active process where the volume of thorax increases, the diaphragm contracts and external intercostal muscles contract

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28
Q

What does the increased volume of the thorax lead to

A

decreases intrapleural pressure, alveoli expand (pressure decreases because the molecules are further apart). Barometric pressure gradient(alveolar pressure < atmospheric pressure). Air flows into the lungs until alveolar pressure = atmospheric pressure.

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29
Q

What is Boyleā€™s law

A

P1V1 = P2V2

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30
Q

Describe expiration

A

Passive process, diaphragm relaxes, external intercostal muscles relax, elastic recoil of the lungs and chest wall reduce volume of the thorax

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31
Q

What does a decrease in the volume of the thorax lead to

A

Increased pressure in the intrapleural pressure. The alveoli recoil as pressure is released (pressure inside increases as molecules are now more compressed) P alveoli > P atmosphere. Air expelled from the lungs

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32
Q

Summarise inspiration

A

Alveolar pressure < atmospheric pressure. Air moves into the lungs. Expiration is the opposite

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33
Q

Compliance formula

A

Change in volume/ change in pressure

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34
Q

How is the stretchiness measured

A

by the compliance so how much the pressure increases

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35
Q

On an FRC x pressure graph why does inspiration cause the curve to deviate right

A

resistive forces which oppose airflow: airway resistance, pulmonary tissue resistance (friction between lungs and chest wall), inertia of the air and tissues

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36
Q

Why is airway resistance important

A

Means greater pressure has to be generated for airflow because the air has to flow through a system of narrow tubes

37
Q

Function of pleural fluid

A

Minimizes friction between the lungs and chest

38
Q

On a FRC x pressure graph why does expiration cause the curve to deviate left

A

because resistive forces assist airflow: elastic recoil of lungs and chest wall, surface tension in alveoli, expiration can be active during forces exhalation (internal intercostal and abdominal muscles contract)

39
Q

What is the ventilation in birds like

A

lung volume changes less than in mammals, air moves through lungs from interconnected air sacs (donā€™t participate in gas exchange but provide continuous air flow), laminar flow across the lungs, negative pressure pump (one way movement of air)

40
Q

What is laminar flow

A

type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid travels smoothly or in regular paths

41
Q

What is the ventilation like in frogs

A

air is forced into the lungs and then emptied by abdominal contraction

42
Q

What is the air movement like in insects

A

airway penetrate each body segment, allowing diffusion. Abdominal muscles ā€˜pumpā€™ air through tracheae

43
Q

Describe the water movement across gills

A

Energy is required to ā€˜pumpā€™ water across the gills. Water ā€˜pulledā€™ across gills when opercular activity expands and opercular flaps open. Water ā€˜pushedā€™ over gills when fish close their mouth

44
Q

Features of laminar flow

A

slow flow rate, parallel stream lines

45
Q

What is Poiseuilleā€™s law

A

Flow rate = (pressure gradient x pi x (airway radius)^4) / (8 x viscosity of liquid x airway length)

46
Q

resistance formula

A

pressure gradient / flow rate

47
Q

What is resistance proportional to

A

1 / (airway radius)^4

48
Q

What are the features of turbulent flow

A

high flow rate, disorganised stream lines

49
Q

What are the features of transitional flow

A

intermediate flow rate, eddy current (swirling of a fluid and the reverse current)

50
Q

What causes airway resistance to decrease

A

increasing the volume of conducting airways

51
Q

Why does resistance decrease as the lung expands

A

connective tissue pulls on bronchioles, so their diameter expands and airway resistance falls

52
Q

What happens to airway resistance when we breathe out

A

Bronchioles recoil, so lung volume is reduce and airway resistance rises rapidly because radial traction is relieved

53
Q

What is dynamic compression

A

Occurs at low lung volume or when intrathoracic pressure > alveolar pressure (forced expiration). Airways are compressed and may close. Occurs during active expression

54
Q

What affects bronchial smooth muscle tone

A

nervous activity, hormones or external factors

55
Q

What is bronchioconstriction and what causes it

A

increased airway resistance caused by irritant (reflex constriction of trachea, large bronchi), parasympathetic stimulation, fall in PCO2, asthma

56
Q

What is bronchiodilation and what causes it

A

lowered airway resistance, caused by autonomic stimulation (circulation catecholamines), sympathomimetic agents (beta 2 agonists)

57
Q

How can infection increase airway flow resistance

A

inflammation of the tissue lining of the upper airways. Overproduction/accumulation of mucus

58
Q

Elastic properties of the lungs

A

when inflated lungs can recoil or collapse back to resting volume. Elastic recoil is determined by elastic properties of lung tissue and surface tension in the alveoli. Elastin and collagen fibers in alveolar wall and around blood vessels and bronchi. Network of fibers allow distension, but recovers geometry when pressure is released

59
Q

What problems does the air-fluid interface in alveoli cause

A

attractive forces in liquid (surface tension) oppose expansion by inspired air, promotes collapse of smaller alveoli, causes transudation of fluid from capillaries

60
Q

What minimises air-fluid interface problems in alveoli

A

Surfactant

61
Q

What is pulmonary surfacant

A

Phospholipoprotein screwed from type II alveolar cells, lowers the surface tension in the liquid layer. Prevents alveolar collapse at low pressures. Present in air breathing animals and some fish

62
Q

When is compliance reduced

A

when surface tension is increased (decreased production of surfactant)

63
Q

Features of the pulmonary circulation system

A

gas composition in arteries and veins is opposite to those in systemic circulation. Low pressure. Artery walls are thin and contain little smooth muscle. Low vascular resistance

64
Q

Vascular resistance formula

A

(input pressure-output pressure)/blood flow

65
Q

Why are there higher rates of flow at the bottom of the lungs

A

Due to decreasing perfusion and ventilation going from the bottom to the top of the lungs due to the effects of gravity

66
Q

Ventilation in an upright individual

A

interpleural pressure is greater (more negative) at the apex. Atmospheric pressure (Palv) is constant

67
Q

Perfusion in an upright individual

A

Blood pressure greater at the base Pa>Pv>Palv (at the base, opposite at the apex). Distribution affected by posture, exercise and diet.

68
Q

What is Va:Q

A

the amount of air that reaches your lungs divided by the amount of blood flow in the capillaries in your lungs

69
Q

What does a Va:Q value of 0 mean

A

Blood passing through the lung without coming in to contact with alveolar air

70
Q

What does a Va:Q value of infinity mean

A

anatomical dead space, or ventilated alveoli that are not perfused

71
Q

what is important to optimise gas exchange

A

local matching of ventilation and perfusion

72
Q

What are the mechanisms to defend Va:Q matching

A

modulation of blood flow rather than ventilation, vasoconstriction by low PO2 (hypoxia). Blood is directed away from poorly - ventilated area

73
Q

What influences the transfer of O2

A

diffusion across the red blood cell membrane and combination with haemoglobin

74
Q

What is cooperative binding

A

when one oxygen binds to Hb, a chemical change makes it easier for more oxygen to bind to Hb

75
Q

What causes the bohr shift to occur

A

Higher Pco2, [H+], temperature, 2-3 BPG

76
Q

which capillaries have a lower average resting partial pressure of O2

A

systemic capillaries

77
Q

What is haemocyanin

A

Cu containing molecule, packaged in cells

78
Q

Which molecules have a higher affinity than haemoglobin

A

myoglobin and foetal Hb

79
Q

CO2 chemical combination in plasma

A

CO2+H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3- <-> H+ + CO32-

80
Q

What do guard cells control

A

air and water movement. Open in direct response to K+ influx and increased turgor pressure

81
Q

What control breathing in mammals

A

neural networks: brainstem (cellular control), sends signals to respiratory muscles (effectors), then to receptors (sensor) which sends signals back to the brain

82
Q

Where to breathing patterns start

A

medulla to spinal cord to respiratory muscles

83
Q

Name the receptors in the lung

A

stretch receptors, juxta-pulmonary ā€œJā€ receptors, irritant receptors, proprioreceptors (position/length sensors)

84
Q

Central chemoreceptors

A

Located near ventolateral surface of the medulla, sensitive to pH CSF (index of PCO2), slow response time and relatively insensitive to change in PO2

85
Q

Peripheral chemoreceptors

A

in carotid and aortic bodies (high blood flow). Responds rapidly, detect oscillations during breathing

86
Q

What causes increased breathing rate

A

Decreases PO2, increased [H+] and increased PCO2

87
Q

What is hypoxia

A

Low levels of oxygen

88
Q

What is hypercapina

A

abnormally high CO2

89
Q

What is the diving reflex in mammals

A

triggered by cold water on the face, reduced heart rate, increased peripheral vasoconstriction, lactate accumulation in muscle, energy conservation (delayed increased PCO2)

Structure And Function Of Living Organisms (10 decks)

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