Respiratory System Flashcards
What is otorhinolaryngology?
Otorhinolaryngology (ENT Surgery) refers to a very wide field, including. medical and surgical conditions of the ear, nose and throat. neurotology. skull-base surgery, head and neck surgery.
How much interstitial fluid is returned to blood and how much enters the lymphatic pathway?
Roughly 90% of interstitial fluid is returned to blood and 10% enters the lymphatic pathway
Where do lymph nodes drain?
They are organized in superficial and deep groups of nodes, and eventually drain via the right lymphatic duct and left thoracic duct into the subclavian or internal jugular veins
Name new places where we find lymph nodes besides old ones like submandibular or submental
Jugulodigastric (upper jugular)
Jugulo-omohyoid (mid-jugular)
Supraclavicular (lower jugular)
Upper accessory chain
Spinal accessory chain
Suboccipital
Transverse cervical supraclavicular
What is the shape of most lymph nodes?
Oval or bean shape with a depression at the hilar region (which is where nerves, arteries and veins enter the lymph node)
What is the size of a normal lymph n?
About 1cm
except the jugolodigastric nodes which can be up to 1.5cm in size
Besides filtration, what do lymph nodes do?
- They undergo lymphopoiesis and create an immune reactionLymphopoiesis—from lympha (Latin, water)—refers to the production of new lymphocytes, including B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells.
How does a lymph node work?
The lymph brings antigens to the node and carries out antibodies, T-cell and macrophage components of cellular immunity, and activated B lymphocytes of humoral immunity
In addition, the phagocytic apparatus of the sinuses filters the lymph, retaining foreign antigens and substances
The passage of the lymph and cells from one chain of lymph nodes to the next is a means by which the immune response is conveyed from the peripheral to the more central lymph nodes
When a lymph node recirculates, usually how long does it take?
12 days except when it is antigenically challenged
What is lymphoma?
What is lymphoma? Lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that affects the immune system. It specifically affects white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are an important part of your immune system. Lymphoma is also called a cancer of the lymphatic system, or lymphatic cancer.
Describe sarcomas
Sarcomas are rare cancers that develop in the bones and soft tissues, including fat, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, deep skin tissues and fibrous tissues
Glomus tumour
Glomus tumors, or paragangliomas, are slow-growing, benign tumors of the neuroendocrine tissues in the body. They are rare but most commonly occur in the head, neck, and adrenal gland. In very rare situations, they are malignant.
Haemangioma
A hemangioma (hee-man-jee-oh-muh) is a common, benign (not-cancer) growth made of extra blood vessels in the skin. The cause of hemangiomas isn’t known, but they’re not hereditary
Lymphangioma
Lymphangiomas are uncommon, benign malformations of the lymphatic system that can occur anywhere on the skin and mucous membranes. Lymphangiomas can be categorized as deep or superficial based on the depth and size of the abnormal lymphatic vessels or as congenital or acquired.
Laryngopharynx
The laryngopharynx, also referred to as the hypopharynx, is the most caudal portion of the pharynx and is a crucial connection point through which food, water, and air pass. Specifically, it refers to the point at which the pharynx divides anteriorly into the larynx and posteriorly into the esophagus.
Name the order of the pharynx
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx - incl tongue and soft palate
Hypopharynx/laryngopharynx - splits into larynx and oesophagus
Name the order from top to bottom of cavities in the head
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
then comes tongue, epiglottis
and vocal chords
Name the parts of the larynx
Your larynx is divided into three parts:
The upper part (supraglottis).
The middle part (glottis) - only one containing vocal chords
The lower part (subglottis).
What are the functions of the larynx (voicebox)
Basically breathe and talk!
Your larynx is part of your respiratory system. It’s a hollow tube that’s about 4 to 5 centimeters (cm) in length and width. It lets air pass from your throat (pharynx) to your trachea on the way to your lungs. Your larynx is also the reason you’re able to make sounds, so it’s often called your voice box.
Interesting one: betel nut
Betel nut chewing, also called betel quid chewing or areca nut chewing, is a practice in which areca nuts (also called “betel nuts”) are chewed together with slaked lime and betel leaves for their stimulant and narcotic effects, the primary psychoactive compound being arecoline.
Barbiturate
Barbiturates are a category of sedative-hypnotic medications used for treating seizure disorders, neonatal withdrawal, insomnia, preoperative anxiety, and the induction of coma to address increased intracranial pressure (ICP). In addition, these medications are also helpful for inducing anesthesia.
Croup
Croup is a common infection in children. It causes swelling in the upper part of the airway in the neck. It causes a barking cough, with or without fever. And it may cause problems with breathing. The illness is seen more often in the winter.
Difference between croup and pertussis
Whooping cough is a bacterial infection whereas a viral infection usually causes croup. Therefore, no vaccines can prevent croup and antibiotics can’t treat it
Myasthenia gravis (MG)
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which antibodies destroy the communication between nerves and muscle, resulting in weakness of the skeletal muscles. Myasthenia gravis affects the voluntary muscles of the body, especially those that control the eyes, mouth, throat and limbs
Papillomatosis
Papillomatosis is skin surface elevations caused by hyperplasia and solid outgrowths of skin and connective tissue.
Differences between aspiration and choking
Choking occurs when the airway is obstructed by food, drink, or foreign objects. Aspiration occurs when food, drink, or foreign objects are breathed into the lungs (going down the wrong tube). It might happen during choking, but aspiration can also be silent, meaning that there is no outward sign.
Aspiration pneumonia
Aspiration pneumonia occurs when oral or gastric contents are aspirated into the lungs, leading to infection. It often results from impaired swallowing or protective airway reflexes
GORD
Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) is a common condition, where acid from the stomach leaks up into the oesophagus (gullet). GORD causes symptoms such as heartburn and an unpleasant taste in the back of the mouth.
LPR
Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR), also known as silent reflux, occurs when a muscle at the end of the esophagus does not close properly.
Difference between GORD and LPR
When acid repeatedly “refluxes” from the stomach into the esophagus alone, it is known as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). However, if the stomach acid travels up the esophagus and spills into the throat or voice box (called the pharynx/larynx), it is known as laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR).
3 things that cause Interstitial lung disease?
Particles that cause localized airway obstruction.
Foreign objects
Foreign substances – molecules/antigens and fibers
Asbestos, coal, animal antigens, smoke
Infective
Viruses, bacteria, fungi
What can a foreign object do that causes issues downstream?
Collapse
Obstruction with mucous build-up
Pneumonia
Lung abscess
Bronchiectasis
Define pneumonia
Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs.
The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. A variety of organisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.
Define bronchioectasis
Disease characterized by permanent dilation of bronchi and bronchioles caused b destruction of the muscle and elastic tissue, resulting from or associated with chronic necrotizing infections.
To be bronchiectasis- the dilatation must be permanent.
Intralobar sequestration
An intralobar sequestration is located within a normal lobe (almost always in the lower lobe) and lacks its own visceral pleura. An extralobar sequestration is located outside the normal lung and has its own visceral pleura.A pulmonary sequestration is a medical condition wherein a piece of tissue that ultimately develops into lung tissue is not attached to the pulmonary arterial blood supply, as is the case in normally developing lung
What are the two types of pulmonary sequestration?
Intralobar, in which the mass forms inside the lungs. These lesions account for about 75% of cases of BPS, affect males and females equally, and are generally isolated birth defects. …
Extralobar, in which the abnormal mass forms outside — but nearby — the lungs.
Primary ciliary dyskinesia
Primary ciliary dyskinesia is caused by genetic mutations that affect the tiny hairline cilia in the lungs, nose and ears, impairing their ability to remove germs and pollutants, and allowing mucus buildup and infection.
Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic (inherited) disease that causes sticky, thick mucus to build up in organs, including the lungs and the pancreas. In people who have CF, thick mucus clogs the airways and makes it difficult to breathe. Management includes ways of clearing lungs and a nutrition plan.
4 causes of bronchiectasis is congenital, post-infectious and bronchial obstruction. Name some examples:
Bronchiectasis
Causes:
Congenital – Cystic fibrosis, intralobar sequaestration, immundeficiency states and primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Post-infectious conditions – necrotizing penumonia
Bacteria : M. tuberculsis, Staphylococcus auresu, Haemophilus influenzae, Pseudomonas .
Virus: adenovirus, influenza virus, HIV
Fungi – aspergillus species.
Bronchial obstruction – tumour, foreign bodies, mucous plugs.
Other: Rheumatoid arthritis, SLE, IBD, post-transplantation.
Bronchioectasis Pathogenesis
Bronchiectasis Pathogenesis:
Develop obstruction and infection – either order.
Obsturction – normal clearing mechanism impaired, pooling of secretions and subsequent infection, with necrosis.
Wall destruction with dilatation of the bronchus.Lower lobes bilateral – especially vertical air passages.
Inflammation varies with activity – acute and chronic inflammation in the all of the bronchiole, fibrosis of the bronchial wall with peribronchiolar fibrosis.
How much will the bronchi dilate?
2-3times in normal size
Summary of bronchioectasis
Bronchiectasis
Permanent dilatation of bronchi & bronchioles.
Results from pulmonary inflammation and scarring due to infection, bronchial obstruction or lung fibrosis.
Airways dilate as surrounding fibrous tissue contracts.
Diffuse or restricted to a lung lob
Secondary inflammation lead to further damage.
Symptoms: chr cough with dyspnoea with ++ sputum.
What is the problem with having extra mucus in the bronchi walls?
Susceptible to infection
Abscess
An abscess is a pocket of pus.
Abscesses can form almost anywhere in or on your body. When you get an infection, your body’s immune system kicks into action to try to fight it. White blood cells travel to the infected area and build up within the damaged tissue.
Abscess vs cysts
Cyst is when abnormal cells begin to grow around the outer layer of the sac. It can be a hollow, hard lump, or even be filled with fluid. They are of varied types and sizes. An abscess is usually a pus-filled cavity that occurs through various organisms, bacteria, fungi.
Complications of bronchioectasis
Complications:
Pneumonia
Lung abscess
Emphysema
Remote abscesses
Amyloidosis
Pulmonary fibrosis
Cor pulmonale
Cor pulmonale
It is right sided heart failure which leads to the enlargement of the right ventricle. Caused by high pressure in the arteries of the lungs because of chronic lung disease.
So you can get hypetrophy and dilation of RV
Interstitial Lung Disease
Also: Diffuse parenchymal Lung Disease
Heterogeneous GROUP of conditions
Result in restrictive lung functions, breathlessness and hypoxia
Inflammatory infiltrates and/or increased fibrous tissue in the lung => increased stiffness & decreased compliance
Alveolar-capillary wall is the site of the lesion.
Either Acute or Chronic
Causes of acute ILD
Causes:
Acute interstitial disease (ARDS)
Radiation pneumonitis
Diffuse intrapulmonary haemorrhage
Causes of chronic ILD
Causes:
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
Pneumoconiosis
Coal-workers pneumoconiosis
Silicosis
Asbestosis
Extrinsic pulmonary alveolitis (hypersensitivity alveollitis)
Sarcoidosis
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP)
Langerhans cell histiocytosis
Alveolar lipoproteinosis
Connective tissue disorders and interstitial lung disease
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP)
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP), previously known as bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia (BOOP), is a rare interstitial lung disease. It is a form of pneumonia in which the bronchioles (small airways), the alveoli (tiny air-exchange sacs), and the walls of the small bronchi become INFLAMED
Langerhans cell histiocytosis
Langerhans cell histiocytosis is an abnormal clonal proliferation of Langerhans cells, abnormal cells deriving from bone marrow and capable of migrating from skin to lymph nodes. Symptoms range from isolated bone lesions to multisystem disease
Alveolar lipoproteinosis
Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare lung disease involving surfactant accumulation within the alveoli resulting from decreased clearance, rather than increased production. This condition can be congenital, secondary, or autoimmune.
Acute Interstitial Disease / ARDS
Quick onset with dyspnea, tachypnea and respiratory distress.
Diffuse alveolar damage (DAD):
Alveolar exudation
Leaky capillaries with interstitial and alveolar fluid accumulation and neutrophils
Hyaline membrane formation (in the alveoli),
Because of protein rich exudate
Haemorrhage
Type II pneumocyte hyperplasia
Lungs are heavy, edematous and congested
ARDS
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening lung injury that allows fluid to leak into the lungs. Breathing becomes difficult and oxygen cannot get into the body. Most people who get ARDS are already at the hospital for trauma or illness. Common cause is sepsis
Hyaline Membrane Formation and Disease
These hyaline membranes may look relatively uniform, but they are actually composed of a myriad of materials, including cytoplasm and nucleoplasm of dead cells, plasma transudate, and amniotic fluid. Hyaline membranes form within 3 to 4 hours of birth and are well developed by 12 to 24 hoursHMD occurs when there is not enough of a substance in the lungs called surfactant. Surfactant is made by the cells in the airways and consists of phospholipids and protein.
Type II pneumocyte hyperplasia
In the presence of insult, type II pneumocytes may enlarge, proliferate, and produce differential diagnostic problems
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
Progressive chronic pulmonary fibrosis of unknown etiology
Mostly pt >60yrs
M > F 2:1
Progresses to respiratory failure with or without cor pulmonale within 5 years
Increased risk for lung carcinoma and IHD
Pathogeneisis is unknown
IDF
Pathology
Patchy distribution
Subpleural regions of lower lobs pred affected
Interstitial inflammatory infiltrate with fibrosis, leading to obliteration of alveoli with progressive fibrosis and cyst formation.
Characteristic: ‘fibroblastic foci’ of immature fibrous tissue are present in early active lesions.
Sarcoidosis
Multisystem inflammatory disorder with granulomatous inflammation and fibrosis. Unknown etiology result in an aberrant immune response due to abnormal T-cell-macrophage interactionNon-caseating granulomatous inflammation with coalesce to form large nodules.
Predominantely found along bronchovascular bundles, septae and pleura.
Heal with fibrosis => restrictive lung disease
erythema nodosum
Erythema nodosum is a type of inflammation in the layer of fat right underneath your skin. This results in tender or painful lump. Tiny bumps or nodules under skin!!!1
Iritis
Iritis is the inflammation of the colored part of your eye (iris). It can cause symptoms such as eye pain, light sensitivity, headache, and decreased vision. It can lead to serious problems such as severe vision loss and even blindness.
Athralgia
Arthralgia describes joint stiffness.
Pneumoconiosis
Form of chronic interstitial lung disease.
Restrictive lung picture.
Exposure to inhaled materials
Inert: coal-workers pneumoconiosis
Fibrous: progressive massive fibrosis, asbestosis, silicosis
Allergic: extrinsic allergic alveolitis
Anthracosis
Anthracosis of the lungs is black discoloration of bronchial mucosa that can occlude bronchial lumen and is associated with bronchial anthracofibrosis (BAF). This disease usually presents with a chronic course of dyspnea and or cough in an elderly non-smoker woman or man.
Coal workers pneumoconiosis
Coal dust is the pathogen. Phagocytosed by macrophages (dust cells). These aggregates around bronchioles – anthracosis.
Smokers and people living in cities.
Consequences:
Asympotomatic
Sympotomatic
Complicated – massive fibrosis
Describe simple vs complicated coal workers pneumoconiosis (progressive massive fibrosis 1 and 2)
Minimal scarring. Aggregates of dust cells.
Minimal airway damage with enlargement of airways.
Complicated CWP (progressive massive fibrosis:
Large, irregular nodules with scarring
Nodules can show central cavitation.
Nodules/scars contract with surrounding emphysema
Complicated CWP (progressive massive fibrosis II:
Nodules in upper and mid zones of lung
Associated emphysema is severe with bullae
Further scarring -> lung destrction -> cor pulmonale and respiratory failure.
Cavitation
the formation of cavities in an organ or tissue especially in disease.
Bullae
Bullae are large blisters on the skin that are filled with clear fluid. Many different skin conditions can cause bullae to form. They can be caused by infection or inflammation of the skin.
Silocisis
Inorganic mineral in stone.
Silica particles are inhaled, reach alveolar macrophages where they are ingested.
Silica is toxic to macrophages, lysis with inflammation.
This causes local tissue destruction with fibrosis.
Fibrotic nodules form and can fuse to form even larger nodules.
Respiratory impairment follows.
Lysis
the disintegration of a cell by rupture of the cell wall or membrane.
Absestosis
Fibers inhaled and lead to:
Localized pleural plaques
Pleural effusions
Parenchymal interstitial fibrosis (asbestosis)
Lung carcinoma
Mesothelioma
Laryngeal and other neoplasms.
Describbe the different forms of asbestosis
2 distinct geometric forms:
Serpentine
Amphiboles
Amphiboles – less common, more pathologic
Both forms are fibrogenic.
Amphiboles more carcinogenic potential.
Fibers lodge in distal airways close to pleural surface.
Ability to generate free O2 radicals.
What causes asbestosis?
Toxic chemicals like tobacco smoke bind the fibers and this enhances their carcinogenic potential.
Fibers lodge at distal airway bifurcation.
Ingested by macrophages and are stimulated to release chemotactic factors and fibrinogenic mediators.
Chronic exposure leads to generalized interstitial pulmonary inflammation and interstitial fibrosis.
pnemoconioses
Group of lung diseases result from inhalation and deposition of inorganic particles and mineral dust with resultant reaction of the lung
Non‐neoplastic reaction of the lungs to inhaled dust particles
Excludes asthma, bronchitis and emphysema (airway diseases)
Common causes are:
* Coal dust
* Silica
* Asbestos
revision: which 3 are airway diseases
Asthma, bronchitis and emphysema
High risk occupations
Miners (gold or coal) or tunnelers
* Sandblasters (shipbuilding, iron‐working, foundries, denim workers)
* Tombstone makers (marble, etc.)
* Millers (mill silica)
* Potters (flint)
* Quarry workers (Quarrying is extracting stone or other materials form the earth, like sand, gravel or crushed rock). Some examples are surface mines, pits, open pits and opencast mines
25% Miners suffer from this in SA, what is it?
Silicosis
Character and severity of pneumoconioses depends on:
Character and severity of reaction depends on:
* Size and fibrogenicity of particles
* Amount of dust and duration of exposure
* Host immune response
* Existing lung disease
* Concurrent smoking
In simplest terms what is siliocosis
Inhalation of silica dioxide ( silica + heat + O2 )
* Most common mineral:
* 59% of Earth’s crust; 95% of known rocks
* Quartz, sand
Describe characteristics of bound vs free silica:
Bound silica (silicate) eg.
* Asbestos (Mg6)
* Talc (Mg3)
* Kaolin (Al)
Crystalline form :
* quartz (free)
* tridymite
* cristobalite
Amorphous form:
* silicon carbide
* vitreous silica
* diatomite
what is the triple epidemic?
Silica
Airway obstruction
HIV
What ruling happened in March 2011when Manyi contracted silicosis and TB?
- Landmark ruling (March 2011) Constitutional Court, Mankayi v.
AngloGold Ashanti Limited - Mankayi contracted silicosis and TB
- Limited payout ‐ Occupational Diseases in Mines and Works Act
(ODIMWA) 1973
Which act caters for sick miners
- Mines and Works Act (ODIMWA)
Pathology of silicosis in 5 steps
- direct toxicity
- production of reactive oxygen species
- production of inflamasomes and cytokins (TNF,
INL-1 beta, - collagen and elastin deposition
- programmed cell death (apoptosis)
How does silicosis present clinically?
- Acute
- Silicoproteinosis
- High exposure, weeks‐months
- Dyspnoea, cough
- Chronic
- Long term exposure
- Up to 30 years after exposure
- Simple or complicated (Progressive Massive Fibrosis)
- Accelerated
- High level exposure (up to 10 years later)
Describe features of simple vs complicated silicosis on lungs
Simple - diffuse nodular infiltrate (lots of nodules) but good lung volume
just abnormalities, not ILD
Complicated - fibrotic lung disease shrink lungs
smaller lung volume
get calcified egg shell (lymph nodes in mediastinum)
ILD
Complications of silicosis
Pneumothorax
* Massive Fibrosis
* Cor Pulmonale
* Respiratory failure
* PTB (silicotuberculosis)
* Collagen vascular diseases, eg. Scleroderma, rheumatoid arthritis
* COPD
How should you diagnose silicosis?
- History of exposure
- Clinical
- Dyspnoea
- Cough
- Cor pulmonale
- Radiology
- CXR
- Histology
What causes asbestos? and properties?
- Hydrated Mg silicate:
- Long thin fibrous crystals
- Each visible fibre made up of millions of “fibrils”
insulating, withstand heat, friction, corrosion,
tension
name 2 asbestos morphological types
Serpentine
* Chrysotile (White) – 90% asbestos used
Amphibole
* Armosite (Brown)
* Crocidolite (Blue) – ass. Mesothelioma (Northern Cape)
High risk occupations of asbestos?
Construction industry: cement, pipes, tiles, insulating, plaster, paint
* Motor car industry: Brake pads
* Filters
* Textile industry (material, thread)
* Boat building
* Demolition: power stations
How does asbestos affect O2?
Asbestos fibers limit the exchange of 02 into the blood stream
Pathology of abestos
Straight (amphibole) higher risk of lung
injury
* Cleared by mucociliary ladder
* Fibres collect at the bifurcations of
bronchioli
* Carried by alveolar macrophages,
deposited in interstitium and pleura (via
lymphatics)
* Result: peribronchial and pleural
fibrosis
Clinically name 3 things asbestos can cause
Benign pleural disease
Pleural plaques (weird ships like S shaped)
Diffuse pleural thickening
Pleural effusion
* Interstitial lung disease
Asbestosis
* Malignant disease
Lung cancer
Mesothelioma
Also macroscopically, honeycomb appearance
Early vs late asbestos clinical symptoms
Early‐
* progressive dyspnoea, cough, sputum, and pleural pain
* Examination basal crackles +/‐ clubbing
* CXR unimpressive
* PFT shows early restriction
* Late
* Progressive clinical pattern, even after exposure ceased
* CXR shows reticular‐nodular pattern in lower 2/3 of the
lungs
* Diagnosis clinically and radiologically; no histology
required
* PFT’s restrictive with diminished DLCO
* HRCT scan fibrotic changes to honeycombing with
little ground glass
A
RSV
Respiratory syncytial virus, also called human respiratory syncytial virus and human orthopneumovirus, is a contagious virus that causes infections of the respiratory tract. It is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. Its name is derived from the large cells known as syncytia that form when infected cells fuse.
What is DAD vs ARDS?
Diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) is a histologic term used to describe specific changes that occur to the structure of the lungs during injury or disease. Most often DAD is described in association with the early stages of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
Pneumonia (again?)
Infection of lung parenchyma distal to terminal bronchioles
Associated with clinical radiological evidence of consolidation
How do alveoli look normally vs in pneumonia?
Mucus+ fluid in pneumonia
Order of conducting airways of the lungs and what section it is:
Conducting portion:
- Trachea
- main bronchus
- segmental bronchus
Respiratory
- Bronchioles
- Terminal bronchioles
- Respiratory bronchioles
Aspiration
think something that should not going into the lungs!!!
Aspiration is when something you swallow enters your airway or lungs. It can also happen when something goes back into your throat from your stomach. People who have a hard time swallowing are more likely to aspirate.
Pleural effusion (an summary definition)
Pleural effusion is the abnormal fluid accumulation within the pleural space, the thin cavity between the pleural layers surrounding the lungs. This condition can arise from various etiologies, ranging from heart failure and pneumonia to malignancies such as lung cancer and inflammatory disorders like lupus.
Empyema
An empyema is a collection or gathering of pus within a naturally existing anatomical cavity. The term is most commonly used to refer to pleural empyema, which is empyema of the pleural cavity. It differs from an abscess, which is a collection of pus in a newly formed cavity.
Pneumothorax
A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity/chest wall. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleurae inside the chest. The air accumulation can apply pressure on the lung and make it collapse.
A blunt or penetrating chest injury, certain medical procedures or lung disease can cause a pneumothorax.
Symptoms include shortness of breath.
When a pneumothorax is large, a needle or tube is used to remove excess air.
Rhinorrhea
Rhinorrhea (runny nose) is mucus (snot) dripping or “running” out of your nose. It has several possible causes, such as cold and/or dry air, allergies or the common cold.
Ansomia
Anosmia means you’ve lost your sense of smell. Often, it’s a side effect of common medical issues like colds, seasonal allergies or polyps in your nose. Your sense of smell usually comes back once the underlying issue goes away or you receive treatment. Sometimes anosmia doesn’t go away.
myalgia
pain in a muscle or group of muscles
CML
A slowly progressing and uncommon type of blood-cell cancer that begins in the bone marrow.
Chronic myeloid leukaemia typically affects older adults. It’s caused by a chromosome mutation that occurs spontaneously. Doctors aren’t sure what causes the mutation.
Mechanisms involved in SNHL
- Absence/aplasia of the cochlear nerve
- Abnormal development of the cochlea
- Genetic anomalies of metabolisms within the cochlea
- Injury to the cochlear structure
- Damage to the hair cells in the cochlea
- Dysfunction or disruption of vascular supply to or within the cochlea
- Disruption of the nerve endings
- Compression of the nerve (CN VIII)
- Central/brain abnormalities
What is pleura and what 2 types is it divided into?
Connective tissue lined by mesothelial cells investing the lung and chest cavity.
Visceral pleura : covers the lung
Parietal pleura : covers the thoracic cage wall, diaphragm, heart and mediastinum
