Respiratory System Flashcards
1
Q
what are the three lobes of the right lung?
A
upper, middle, lower
2
Q
what are the two lobes of the left lung?
A
upper, lower
3
Q
what structure on the left lung accommodates for the heart?
A
cardiac notch
4
Q
what are the two fissures of the right lung?
A
oblique and horizontal fissure
5
Q
what is the name of the serous membrane that covers the lungs?
A
pleura
6
Q
what are the two layers of the pleura?
A
visceral and parietal pleura
7
Q
what is the function of pleural fluid?
A
holds lungs tight against thoracic cavity wall in partially inflated state
8
Q
what type of cartilage is the epiglottis?
A
elastic cartilage
9
Q
where does the epiglottis cover?
A
the laryngeal inlet (where pharynx and larynx meet) during swallowing
10
Q
what does the epiglottis prevent while eating?
A
prevents food from entering the trachea and instead directs it down the esophagus
11
Q
what happens if food enters the windpipe?
A
gag reflex is induced
12
Q
what does the epiglottis do when swallowing?
A
epiglottis bends over the glottis so bolus of food glides over epiglottis and does not fall into larynx
13
Q
what are the three cartilages of the larynx?
A
thyroid, cricoid and epiglottis
14
Q
what cartilage is the thyroid and cricoid cartilage made of?
A
hyaline cartilage
15
Q
what impacts the size of the Adams apple?
A
angle of thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx
16
Q
what happens to the Adams apple during puberty
A
thyroid cartilage elongates in response to androgens
17
Q
what is the surgery that reduces the size of the Adams apple?
A
chondrolaryngoplasty
18
Q
what is the state of the vocal cords and glottis during normal breathing?
A
vocal cords are relaxed and the glottis is a triangular slit
19
Q
what is the state of the glottis during swallowing?
A
the false vocal cords and epiglottis close off the glottis
20
Q
how is speech produced?
A
intermittent release of expired air while opening and closing the glottis
21
Q
what increases the loudness of vocal production?
A
increasing the force at which air rushes across the vocal cords
22
Q
what affects the pitch of vocal production?
A
tension of the vocal cords
23
Q
what is the role of the pharynx in voice production?
A
resonates, amplifies, and enhances sounds quality
24
Q
what body parts shape sound into language?
A
pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips
25
what does the trachea branch into?
right and left primary bronchi
26
what is the the trachea supported by?
20 incomplete C-shaped cartilaginous rings
27
what is the function of the C-shaped rings?
the open portion faces the esophagus allowing the trachea to distort when you swallow
28
what allows the trachea to adjust its diameter and change the resistance to airflow as needed?
band of smooth muscle called trachealis muscle
29
how are large particles removed from nasal cavity?
filtration
30
what is the function of mucous cells and mucous glands?
produce mucus that bathes exposed surfaces and traps smaller particles
31
what is the function of cilia?
sweep debris trapped in mucus upwards toward the pharynx
32
what deals with small particles that reach the lungs?
alveolar macrophages
33
what is the system that moves particles trapped in mucus upwards towards the pharynx?
mucociliary escalator
34
how does the mucocilliary escalator work?
traps particles in mucus lining of bronchi and bronchioles, carries them to the pharynx by ciliary action
35
what type of epithelia in bronchi/broncioles/trachea?
ciliated columnar epithelia
36
what is the function of the conducting zone of the respiratory system?
moves air and prepares it for gas exchange (moistens, warms, and filters)
37
what makes up the conducting zone?
nasal cavity down to the terminal bronchioles
38
what is the function of the respiratory zone?
site of O2 and Co2 exchange with blood
39
what makes up the respiratory zone?
respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
40
what happens to bronchioles as they branch?
become smaller, have less cartilage and eventually have a complete layer of circular smooth muscle
41
do bronchioles have cartilage support?
no
42
do bronchioles have mucus-producing cells?
no
43
what muscle type is dominant in bronchioles?
smooth muscle
44
what is inflammation of smooth muscle in bronchioles called?
bronchitis
45
what cell type is found in primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi?
pseudo stratified ciliated columnar
46
what cell type is found in larger bronchioles?
ciliated simple columnar
47
what cell type is found in smaller bronchioles?
ciliated simple cuboidal
48
what cell type is found in terminal bronchioles?
nonciliated simple cuboidal
49
what cell type is found in the respiratory zone?
simple squamous
50
what are alveoli surrounded by?
capillaries and elastic fibers
51
what are Type 1 cells of alveoli?
simple squamous epithelial cells that line alveolar wall and are the site of gas diffusion
52
what are Type 2 cells of alveoli?
surfactant secreting cells?
53
what is the reason for the short distance between alveolar air and blood?
allows for rapid diffusion of gases
54
what prevents air-filled alveoli from collapsing?
surfactant
55
why does surfactant prevent alveolar collapse?
contains phospholipids and proteins and coasts alveolar surfaces reducing surface tension
56
what is LaPlace's law for surface tension?
the pressure is related to both the surface tension and the radius
57
what would happen without surfactant?
if the surface tension is equal, the pressure would be greater in smaller alveoli because it has a smaller radius thus giving it a greater tendency to collapse
58
respiratory distress syndrome?
difficult breathing due to collapse of alveoli
59
who is most at risk for alveoli collapsing?
premature babies because they may not have enough surfactant in their lungs
60
how does air flow?
from areas of high pressure to area of lower pressure
61
what is intrapleural pressure?
pressure in pleural cavity between visceral and parietal pleura
62
what is intrapulmonary pressure?
pressure inside the lungs
63
what is resistance to air flow impacted by?
diameter of the tubes through which air is flowing
64
what is boyles law?
relationship between the pressure and volume of gases. If volume of container decreases the pressure increases. P = 1/V
65
what is the pressure relationship at rest?
P outside = P inside so no air movement occurs
66
describe the sequence of events of inhalation?
1. inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends; rib cage rises)
2. thoracic cavity volume increase
3. lungs stretched; intrapulmonary volume increases
4. intrapulmonary pressure drops
5. air flows into lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
67
what are the primary muscles of inhalation?
diaphragm and intercostal muscles
68
what are the secondary muscles of inspiration?
sternocleidomastoid elevates sternum
pectoralis minor elevates ribs
69
when does inspiration occur?
intra-alveolar pressure < atmospheric pressure
70
describe the sequence of events of exhalation?
1. inspiratory muscles relax (diaphragm rises; rib cage descends due to recoil of costal cartilages)
2. thoracic cavity volume decreases
3. elastic lungs recoil passively; intrapulmonary volume decreases
4. intrapulmonary pressure rises
5. air flows out of lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
71
what are the accessory muscles of forced expiration?
abdominal wall muscles contract and contract abdominal organs
posterior internal intercostals pull ribs down and inward
72
what is the volume of air moved during a single respiratory cycle?
tidal volume
73
what is the additional/forced air that can be breathed in after tidal vol.
inspiratory reserve volume
74
what is inspiratory capacity?
IRV + TV
75
what is the additional/forced air expelled after tidal vol?
expiratory reserve volume
76
what is the air that remains in your lungs after forced expiration?
residual volume
77
what is the total amount of air you can control?
Vital capacity: IRV + TV + ERV
78
what is the ERV + Residual volume?
functional residual capacity
79
what is the amount of air remaining in your lungs after a quiet respiratory cycle?
functional residual capacity
80
what factors impact total lung capacity?
age, height, weight, sex, altitude, smoking, pregnancy
81
what is pneumothorax?
lung collapse
82
what causes hiccups?
involuntary twitching (myoclonus) of the diaphragm
83
Dalton's law of partial pressures
total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas in the mixture. the partial pressure of each gas is directly proportional to its percentage in the mixture
84
true or false, at high temperatures, the number of O2 molecules is lower?
true, although the O2 concentration is the same, the lower ATM pressure means a lower O2 pressure
85
henry's law
when a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure
86
rank carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen in terms of solubility in plasma?
carbon dioxide is most, followed by oxygen, then nitrogen
87
what is external ventilation?
includes all processes involved in exchanging O2 and CO2 with the environment
88
what is internal respiration?
result of cellular respiration. involves the uptake of O2 and production of Co2 within individual cells
89
what is the partial pressure of blood as it approaches the alveoli?
PO2 = 40
PCO2 = 45
90
what is the partial pressure of blood as it approaches the alveoli?
PO2 = 40
PCO2 = 45
91
what is the partial pressure of the alveoli?
PO2 = 104
PCo2 = 40
92
what is the partial pressure of blood leaving the alveoli?
PO2 = 100
PCo2 = 40
93
what is the result in blood of external respiration?
raise PO2
lowers PCo2
94
what is the result of blood from lungs mixing with blood in capillaries around conducting passageways?
PO2 drops from 104 to 100
95
what is the partial pressure of blood approaching body tissue?
PO2 = 100
PCo2 = 40
96
what is the partial pressure of body tissue?
pO2 = 40
PCo2 = 45
97
what is the partial pressure of blood after exchanging with body tissue?
PO2 = 40
PCo2 = 45
98
what is the result in blood of internal respiration?
lower PO2
raises PCo2
99
how many oxygen molecules does one hemoglobin molecule bind?
four in a rapid and reversible process
100
what is the hemoglobin-oxygen combination called?
oxyhemoglobin
101
what is hemoglobin that has released oxygen called?
deoxyhemoglobin
102
what are oxygen molecules bound to on hemoglobin?
iron-containing heme group
103
what percentage of oxygen in blood is bound to hemoglobin?
98.5%
104
what percentage of oxygen in blood is dissolved in the water of the plasma?
1.5%
105
what happens when one molecules of O2 binds to hemoglobin?
causes a conformational change making other heme units more accessible to O2
106
what is the saturation level of hemoglobin with O2 at a PO2 of 70 mm Hg?
almost completely saturated
107
what does a rightward shift of the hemoglobin saturation curve indicate?
less affinity of Hb for O2, unloads more O2 to tissue
108
what does a leftward shift of the hemoglobin saturation curve indicate?
greater affinity of Hb for O2, unloads less O2 to tissue
109
what does a decrease in Ph do to the hemoglobin saturation curve?
shifts it right
110
what is the effect of a decrease in pH?
more hydrogen ions, H ions combine with Hb and change its 3D structure so decreases its ability to bind oxygen
111
how does exercise impact hemoglobin oxygen unloading/saturation?
after exercising, lactic acid and carbonic acid builds up in muscle so the cells become more acidic. Free H+ builds up and some binds to Hb and shifts curve to the right by weakening the hemoglobin oxygen bond. Oxygen unloading enhanced
112
what is the effect of 2,3-BPG on the hemoglobin saturation curve?
2,3-BPG binds to hemoglobin as allosteric effect. 2,3-BPG levels increase when H+ increases (pH decreases). BPG binds to Hb decreasing Hb affinity of O2 so unloaded easier
113
how is 2,3-BPG produced?
by RBC's as they break down glucose by the anaerobic process glycolysis
114
what does an increase in body temperature do to the hemoglobin saturation curve?
rise in temp increases BPG synthesis, shifting curve right
115
what is the effect of PCo2 on hemoglobin saturation curve?
increased Co2 binds to Hb and shifts curve to the right
116
acidosis
pH decreases, Hb binds to O2 with less affinity, curve shifts right
117
alkalosis
pH increases, Hb binds to O2 with more affinity, curve shift left
118
what is the bohr effect?
the result of pH on hemoglobin saturation curve.
shift curve left = higher affinity of Hb for oxygen (less delivery of O2 to tissue)
shift curve right = lower affinity of Hb for oxygen (more delivery of O2 to tissues)
119
what causes the bohr effect?
caused by CO2. At the tissue where Co2 is high, Co2 diffuses into RBC. Series of rxns occur, hydrogen ions diffuse out of RBC = lowers ph
120
what are the three form carbon dioxide is transported in blood?
- dissolved in plasma (7-10%)
- chemically bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin (20%)
- bicarbonate ion in plasma (70%)
121
what is the Haldane effect?
describes how oxygen concentrations determine hemoglobin affinity for Co2. More O2 displaces Co2, reduces Hb affinity for Co2
122
describe the rxn which occurs after the diffusion of carbon dioxide into RBCs?
carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid which quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ion. In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase reversible catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid.
123
what is the chloride shift?
bicarbonate moves out of RBC in exchange for Cl- moving in
124
where is the central chemoreceptor?
medulla oblongata and pons. They regulate respiratory muscles in response to sensory information. set the pace of respiration
125
where are the peripheral chemoreceptors?
aortic arch, carotids
126
what do the central and peripheral chemoreceptors sense?
changes in pH and PO2
127
what happens when pH of blood gets too low?
respiration rate increases
- increased ventilation = more Co2 exhaled
- respiration rate increase
- arterial PCo2 and ph return to normal
128
what is hypercapnia?
increase in arterial PCo2
129
what is a common cause of hypercapnia?
hypoventilation
130
what is the body response to hypercapnia?
abnormally low respiration rate allows Co2 buildup in blood which lower ph = more acidic. Stimulates chemoreceptors to increase respiration rate to rid body of excess CO2
131
what is hypocapnia?
decrease in arterial PCo2
132
what is the cause of hypocapnia?
excessive ventilation, hyperventilation results in a abnormally low PCo2. stimulates chemoreceptors to decrease respiratory rate
133
what is the most common "semi-lethal" genetic disorder in North America?
cystic fibrosis
134
a mutation in what protein is responsible for cystic fibrosis?
CFTR protein
135
what type of membrane protein is CFTR?
Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator
- transmembrane, integral membrane protein
136
how many membrane-spanning domains are there?
12
137
what many nucleotide-binding domains are there?
2
138
how many regulatory domains are there?
1
139
what happens if CFTR protein is defective?
disrupted chloride secretion, sodium absorption and water transport across epithelium
140
what is important about the movement of chloride?
it influences the movement of water down the osmotic gradient which helps keep the mucus thin and freely moving
141
what other ion besides chloride and bicarbonate does the CFTR protein regulate? and what does that ion do?
sodium ion channels (ENaC). Na ions follow to help balance the electrical charge
142
what is the anion channel activated by?
phosphorylation of the R domain
143
what is the anion channel gated by?
binding of ATP to NBD
144
what is a pilocarpine sweat test?
pilocarpine is a cholinergic agent that mimics the effects of acetlycholine, and stimulates muscarinic receptors on sweat glands. Sweat is tested for chloride concentration and if high enough, indicates CFTR mutation
145
what structure is a pilocarpine sweat test evaluating?
sweat gland
146
how is sweat formed?
Na and Cl transporters
147
how is the secretion of sweat made electrically neutral?
balance of positively charged Na cations and negatively charged Cl anions that are reabsorbed at about the same rate to balance the charges
148
what is responsible for Na/Cl secretion into the secretory coil?
cholingergic stimulation NOT CFTR
149
what is responsible for Na/Cl reabsorption from reabsorptive duct lumen?
primarily CFTR and ENac and Na/K ATPase
150
how does a vibrating rest help patients with CF?
vest vibrates at a high frequency to help loosen the thick mucus that builds up in the lungs
151
what normal process in the upper respiratory tract is affected in those with CF?
mucociliary escalator
152
what is the name of the clicking, rattling, or crackling noises of the lungs that are heard using a stethoscope?
rales
153
would inhalation of hypotonic or hypertonic solutions help the airway secretions? why?
hypertonic, because it osmotically draws fluid into the airway lumen, replenishing the fluid layer and accelerating mucus clearance
154
what is bronchiectasis?
abnormal widening of the airways due to recurrent inflammation and infection
155
t/f, extra mucus pools in the enlarged areas is a common characteristic of bronchiectasis?
true
156
what happens if mucous is hard to clear?
opportunity for bacterial growth
157
how many CFTR mutations cause cystic fibrosis?
over 2000
158
what is the allele that the majority of CF patients carry?
F508 allele
159
what 3 intracellular organelles are responsible for the CF mutations?
nucleus, ER, golgi
160
what cell type expresses high levels of CFTR, allowing therapies to better target?
ionocytes
161
what cell type is targeted in gene editing in an attempt to treat CF?
basal cells
