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Anatomy and Physiology > Respiratory System > Flashcards

Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

what are the three lobes of the right lung?

A

upper, middle, lower

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2
Q

what are the two lobes of the left lung?

A

upper, lower

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3
Q

what structure on the left lung accommodates for the heart?

A

cardiac notch

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4
Q

what are the two fissures of the right lung?

A

oblique and horizontal fissure

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5
Q

what is the name of the serous membrane that covers the lungs?

A

pleura

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6
Q

what are the two layers of the pleura?

A

visceral and parietal pleura

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7
Q

what is the function of pleural fluid?

A

holds lungs tight against thoracic cavity wall in partially inflated state

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8
Q

what type of cartilage is the epiglottis?

A

elastic cartilage

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9
Q

where does the epiglottis cover?

A

the laryngeal inlet (where pharynx and larynx meet) during swallowing

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10
Q

what does the epiglottis prevent while eating?

A

prevents food from entering the trachea and instead directs it down the esophagus

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11
Q

what happens if food enters the windpipe?

A

gag reflex is induced

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12
Q

what does the epiglottis do when swallowing?

A

epiglottis bends over the glottis so bolus of food glides over epiglottis and does not fall into larynx

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13
Q

what are the three cartilages of the larynx?

A

thyroid, cricoid and epiglottis

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14
Q

what cartilage is the thyroid and cricoid cartilage made of?

A

hyaline cartilage

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15
Q

what impacts the size of the Adams apple?

A

angle of thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx

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16
Q

what happens to the Adams apple during puberty

A

thyroid cartilage elongates in response to androgens

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17
Q

what is the surgery that reduces the size of the Adams apple?

A

chondrolaryngoplasty

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18
Q

what is the state of the vocal cords and glottis during normal breathing?

A

vocal cords are relaxed and the glottis is a triangular slit

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19
Q

what is the state of the glottis during swallowing?

A

the false vocal cords and epiglottis close off the glottis

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20
Q

how is speech produced?

A

intermittent release of expired air while opening and closing the glottis

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21
Q

what increases the loudness of vocal production?

A

increasing the force at which air rushes across the vocal cords

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22
Q

what affects the pitch of vocal production?

A

tension of the vocal cords

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23
Q

what is the role of the pharynx in voice production?

A

resonates, amplifies, and enhances sounds quality

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24
Q

what body parts shape sound into language?

A

pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips

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25
Q

what does the trachea branch into?

A

right and left primary bronchi

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26
Q

what is the the trachea supported by?

A

20 incomplete C-shaped cartilaginous rings

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27
Q

what is the function of the C-shaped rings?

A

the open portion faces the esophagus allowing the trachea to distort when you swallow

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28
Q

what allows the trachea to adjust its diameter and change the resistance to airflow as needed?

A

band of smooth muscle called trachealis muscle

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29
Q

how are large particles removed from nasal cavity?

A

filtration

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30
Q

what is the function of mucous cells and mucous glands?

A

produce mucus that bathes exposed surfaces and traps smaller particles

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31
Q

what is the function of cilia?

A

sweep debris trapped in mucus upwards toward the pharynx

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32
Q

what deals with small particles that reach the lungs?

A

alveolar macrophages

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33
Q

what is the system that moves particles trapped in mucus upwards towards the pharynx?

A

mucociliary escalator

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34
Q

how does the mucocilliary escalator work?

A

traps particles in mucus lining of bronchi and bronchioles, carries them to the pharynx by ciliary action

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35
Q

what type of epithelia in bronchi/broncioles/trachea?

A

ciliated columnar epithelia

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36
Q

what is the function of the conducting zone of the respiratory system?

A

moves air and prepares it for gas exchange (moistens, warms, and filters)

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37
Q

what makes up the conducting zone?

A

nasal cavity down to the terminal bronchioles

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38
Q

what is the function of the respiratory zone?

A

site of O2 and Co2 exchange with blood

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39
Q

what makes up the respiratory zone?

A

respiratory bronchioles and alveoli

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40
Q

what happens to bronchioles as they branch?

A

become smaller, have less cartilage and eventually have a complete layer of circular smooth muscle

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41
Q

do bronchioles have cartilage support?

A

no

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42
Q

do bronchioles have mucus-producing cells?

A

no

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43
Q

what muscle type is dominant in bronchioles?

A

smooth muscle

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44
Q

what is inflammation of smooth muscle in bronchioles called?

A

bronchitis

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45
Q

what cell type is found in primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi?

A

pseudo stratified ciliated columnar

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46
Q

what cell type is found in larger bronchioles?

A

ciliated simple columnar

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47
Q

what cell type is found in smaller bronchioles?

A

ciliated simple cuboidal

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48
Q

what cell type is found in terminal bronchioles?

A

nonciliated simple cuboidal

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49
Q

what cell type is found in the respiratory zone?

A

simple squamous

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50
Q

what are alveoli surrounded by?

A

capillaries and elastic fibers

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51
Q

what are Type 1 cells of alveoli?

A

simple squamous epithelial cells that line alveolar wall and are the site of gas diffusion

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52
Q

what are Type 2 cells of alveoli?

A

surfactant secreting cells?

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53
Q

what is the reason for the short distance between alveolar air and blood?

A

allows for rapid diffusion of gases

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54
Q

what prevents air-filled alveoli from collapsing?

A

surfactant

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55
Q

why does surfactant prevent alveolar collapse?

A

contains phospholipids and proteins and coasts alveolar surfaces reducing surface tension

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56
Q

what is LaPlace’s law for surface tension?

A

the pressure is related to both the surface tension and the radius

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57
Q

what would happen without surfactant?

A

if the surface tension is equal, the pressure would be greater in smaller alveoli because it has a smaller radius thus giving it a greater tendency to collapse

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58
Q

respiratory distress syndrome?

A

difficult breathing due to collapse of alveoli

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59
Q

who is most at risk for alveoli collapsing?

A

premature babies because they may not have enough surfactant in their lungs

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60
Q

how does air flow?

A

from areas of high pressure to area of lower pressure

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61
Q

what is intrapleural pressure?

A

pressure in pleural cavity between visceral and parietal pleura

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62
Q

what is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

pressure inside the lungs

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63
Q

what is resistance to air flow impacted by?

A

diameter of the tubes through which air is flowing

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64
Q

what is boyles law?

A

relationship between the pressure and volume of gases. If volume of container decreases the pressure increases. P = 1/V

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65
Q

what is the pressure relationship at rest?

A

P outside = P inside so no air movement occurs

66
Q

describe the sequence of events of inhalation?

A
  1. inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends; rib cage rises)
  2. thoracic cavity volume increase
  3. lungs stretched; intrapulmonary volume increases
  4. intrapulmonary pressure drops
  5. air flows into lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
67
Q

what are the primary muscles of inhalation?

A

diaphragm and intercostal muscles

68
Q

what are the secondary muscles of inspiration?

A

sternocleidomastoid elevates sternum
pectoralis minor elevates ribs

69
Q

when does inspiration occur?

A

intra-alveolar pressure < atmospheric pressure

70
Q

describe the sequence of events of exhalation?

A
  1. inspiratory muscles relax (diaphragm rises; rib cage descends due to recoil of costal cartilages)
  2. thoracic cavity volume decreases
  3. elastic lungs recoil passively; intrapulmonary volume decreases
  4. intrapulmonary pressure rises
  5. air flows out of lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
71
Q

what are the accessory muscles of forced expiration?

A

abdominal wall muscles contract and contract abdominal organs
posterior internal intercostals pull ribs down and inward

72
Q

what is the volume of air moved during a single respiratory cycle?

A

tidal volume

73
Q

what is the additional/forced air that can be breathed in after tidal vol.

A

inspiratory reserve volume

74
Q

what is inspiratory capacity?

A

IRV + TV

75
Q

what is the additional/forced air expelled after tidal vol?

A

expiratory reserve volume

76
Q

what is the air that remains in your lungs after forced expiration?

A

residual volume

77
Q

what is the total amount of air you can control?

A

Vital capacity: IRV + TV + ERV

78
Q

what is the ERV + Residual volume?

A

functional residual capacity

79
Q

what is the amount of air remaining in your lungs after a quiet respiratory cycle?

A

functional residual capacity

80
Q

what factors impact total lung capacity?

A

age, height, weight, sex, altitude, smoking, pregnancy

81
Q

what is pneumothorax?

A

lung collapse

82
Q

what causes hiccups?

A

involuntary twitching (myoclonus) of the diaphragm

83
Q

Dalton’s law of partial pressures

A

total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas in the mixture. the partial pressure of each gas is directly proportional to its percentage in the mixture

84
Q

true or false, at high temperatures, the number of O2 molecules is lower?

A

true, although the O2 concentration is the same, the lower ATM pressure means a lower O2 pressure

85
Q

henry’s law

A

when a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure

86
Q

rank carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen in terms of solubility in plasma?

A

carbon dioxide is most, followed by oxygen, then nitrogen

87
Q

what is external ventilation?

A

includes all processes involved in exchanging O2 and CO2 with the environment

88
Q

what is internal respiration?

A

result of cellular respiration. involves the uptake of O2 and production of Co2 within individual cells

89
Q

what is the partial pressure of blood as it approaches the alveoli?

A

PO2 = 40
PCO2 = 45

90
Q

what is the partial pressure of blood as it approaches the alveoli?

A

PO2 = 40
PCO2 = 45

91
Q

what is the partial pressure of the alveoli?

A

PO2 = 104
PCo2 = 40

92
Q

what is the partial pressure of blood leaving the alveoli?

A

PO2 = 100
PCo2 = 40

93
Q

what is the result in blood of external respiration?

A

raise PO2
lowers PCo2

94
Q

what is the result of blood from lungs mixing with blood in capillaries around conducting passageways?

A

PO2 drops from 104 to 100

95
Q

what is the partial pressure of blood approaching body tissue?

A

PO2 = 100
PCo2 = 40

96
Q

what is the partial pressure of body tissue?

A

pO2 = 40
PCo2 = 45

97
Q

what is the partial pressure of blood after exchanging with body tissue?

A

PO2 = 40
PCo2 = 45

98
Q

what is the result in blood of internal respiration?

A

lower PO2
raises PCo2

99
Q

how many oxygen molecules does one hemoglobin molecule bind?

A

four in a rapid and reversible process

100
Q

what is the hemoglobin-oxygen combination called?

A

oxyhemoglobin

101
Q

what is hemoglobin that has released oxygen called?

A

deoxyhemoglobin

102
Q

what are oxygen molecules bound to on hemoglobin?

A

iron-containing heme group

103
Q

what percentage of oxygen in blood is bound to hemoglobin?

A

98.5%

104
Q

what percentage of oxygen in blood is dissolved in the water of the plasma?

A

1.5%

105
Q

what happens when one molecules of O2 binds to hemoglobin?

A

causes a conformational change making other heme units more accessible to O2

106
Q

what is the saturation level of hemoglobin with O2 at a PO2 of 70 mm Hg?

A

almost completely saturated

107
Q

what does a rightward shift of the hemoglobin saturation curve indicate?

A

less affinity of Hb for O2, unloads more O2 to tissue

108
Q

what does a leftward shift of the hemoglobin saturation curve indicate?

A

greater affinity of Hb for O2, unloads less O2 to tissue

109
Q

what does a decrease in Ph do to the hemoglobin saturation curve?

A

shifts it right

110
Q

what is the effect of a decrease in pH?

A

more hydrogen ions, H ions combine with Hb and change its 3D structure so decreases its ability to bind oxygen

111
Q

how does exercise impact hemoglobin oxygen unloading/saturation?

A

after exercising, lactic acid and carbonic acid builds up in muscle so the cells become more acidic. Free H+ builds up and some binds to Hb and shifts curve to the right by weakening the hemoglobin oxygen bond. Oxygen unloading enhanced

112
Q

what is the effect of 2,3-BPG on the hemoglobin saturation curve?

A

2,3-BPG binds to hemoglobin as allosteric effect. 2,3-BPG levels increase when H+ increases (pH decreases). BPG binds to Hb decreasing Hb affinity of O2 so unloaded easier

113
Q

how is 2,3-BPG produced?

A

by RBC’s as they break down glucose by the anaerobic process glycolysis

114
Q

what does an increase in body temperature do to the hemoglobin saturation curve?

A

rise in temp increases BPG synthesis, shifting curve right

115
Q

what is the effect of PCo2 on hemoglobin saturation curve?

A

increased Co2 binds to Hb and shifts curve to the right

116
Q

acidosis

A

pH decreases, Hb binds to O2 with less affinity, curve shifts right

117
Q

alkalosis

A

pH increases, Hb binds to O2 with more affinity, curve shift left

118
Q

what is the bohr effect?

A

the result of pH on hemoglobin saturation curve.
shift curve left = higher affinity of Hb for oxygen (less delivery of O2 to tissue)
shift curve right = lower affinity of Hb for oxygen (more delivery of O2 to tissues)

119
Q

what causes the bohr effect?

A

caused by CO2. At the tissue where Co2 is high, Co2 diffuses into RBC. Series of rxns occur, hydrogen ions diffuse out of RBC = lowers ph

120
Q

what are the three form carbon dioxide is transported in blood?

A
  • dissolved in plasma (7-10%)
  • chemically bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin (20%)
  • bicarbonate ion in plasma (70%)
121
Q

what is the Haldane effect?

A

describes how oxygen concentrations determine hemoglobin affinity for Co2. More O2 displaces Co2, reduces Hb affinity for Co2

122
Q

describe the rxn which occurs after the diffusion of carbon dioxide into RBCs?

A

carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid which quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ion. In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase reversible catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid.

123
Q

what is the chloride shift?

A

bicarbonate moves out of RBC in exchange for Cl- moving in

124
Q

where is the central chemoreceptor?

A

medulla oblongata and pons. They regulate respiratory muscles in response to sensory information. set the pace of respiration

125
Q

where are the peripheral chemoreceptors?

A

aortic arch, carotids

126
Q

what do the central and peripheral chemoreceptors sense?

A

changes in pH and PO2

127
Q

what happens when pH of blood gets too low?

A

respiration rate increases
- increased ventilation = more Co2 exhaled
- respiration rate increase
- arterial PCo2 and ph return to normal

128
Q

what is hypercapnia?

A

increase in arterial PCo2

129
Q

what is a common cause of hypercapnia?

A

hypoventilation

130
Q

what is the body response to hypercapnia?

A

abnormally low respiration rate allows Co2 buildup in blood which lower ph = more acidic. Stimulates chemoreceptors to increase respiration rate to rid body of excess CO2

131
Q

what is hypocapnia?

A

decrease in arterial PCo2

132
Q

what is the cause of hypocapnia?

A

excessive ventilation, hyperventilation results in a abnormally low PCo2. stimulates chemoreceptors to decrease respiratory rate

133
Q

what is the most common “semi-lethal” genetic disorder in North America?

A

cystic fibrosis

134
Q

a mutation in what protein is responsible for cystic fibrosis?

A

CFTR protein

135
Q

what type of membrane protein is CFTR?

A

Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator

  • transmembrane, integral membrane protein
136
Q

how many membrane-spanning domains are there?

A

12

137
Q

what many nucleotide-binding domains are there?

A

2

138
Q

how many regulatory domains are there?

A

1

139
Q

what happens if CFTR protein is defective?

A

disrupted chloride secretion, sodium absorption and water transport across epithelium

140
Q

what is important about the movement of chloride?

A

it influences the movement of water down the osmotic gradient which helps keep the mucus thin and freely moving

141
Q

what other ion besides chloride and bicarbonate does the CFTR protein regulate? and what does that ion do?

A

sodium ion channels (ENaC). Na ions follow to help balance the electrical charge

142
Q

what is the anion channel activated by?

A

phosphorylation of the R domain

143
Q

what is the anion channel gated by?

A

binding of ATP to NBD

144
Q

what is a pilocarpine sweat test?

A

pilocarpine is a cholinergic agent that mimics the effects of acetlycholine, and stimulates muscarinic receptors on sweat glands. Sweat is tested for chloride concentration and if high enough, indicates CFTR mutation

145
Q

what structure is a pilocarpine sweat test evaluating?

A

sweat gland

146
Q

how is sweat formed?

A

Na and Cl transporters

147
Q

how is the secretion of sweat made electrically neutral?

A

balance of positively charged Na cations and negatively charged Cl anions that are reabsorbed at about the same rate to balance the charges

148
Q

what is responsible for Na/Cl secretion into the secretory coil?

A

cholingergic stimulation NOT CFTR

149
Q

what is responsible for Na/Cl reabsorption from reabsorptive duct lumen?

A

primarily CFTR and ENac and Na/K ATPase

150
Q

how does a vibrating rest help patients with CF?

A

vest vibrates at a high frequency to help loosen the thick mucus that builds up in the lungs

151
Q

what normal process in the upper respiratory tract is affected in those with CF?

A

mucociliary escalator

152
Q

what is the name of the clicking, rattling, or crackling noises of the lungs that are heard using a stethoscope?

A

rales

153
Q

would inhalation of hypotonic or hypertonic solutions help the airway secretions? why?

A

hypertonic, because it osmotically draws fluid into the airway lumen, replenishing the fluid layer and accelerating mucus clearance

154
Q

what is bronchiectasis?

A

abnormal widening of the airways due to recurrent inflammation and infection

155
Q

t/f, extra mucus pools in the enlarged areas is a common characteristic of bronchiectasis?

A

true

156
Q

what happens if mucous is hard to clear?

A

opportunity for bacterial growth

157
Q

how many CFTR mutations cause cystic fibrosis?

A

over 2000

158
Q

what is the allele that the majority of CF patients carry?

A

F508 allele

159
Q

what 3 intracellular organelles are responsible for the CF mutations?

A

nucleus, ER, golgi

160
Q

what cell type expresses high levels of CFTR, allowing therapies to better target?

A

ionocytes

161
Q

what cell type is targeted in gene editing in an attempt to treat CF?

A

basal cells

Anatomy and Physiology (7 decks)

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