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A & P Lecture > Respiartory System > Flashcards

Respiartory System Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the Respiratory System

A
  1. Provides extensive gas exchange surface area between air and circulating blood
  2. Moves air to and from exchange surfaces of lungs
  3. Protects respiratory surfaces from outside environment
  4. Produces sounds (have to breathe out to talk)
  5. Participates in olfactory sense (smell, breathe in)
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2
Q

The respiratory system is divided into 2:

A

1• Upper respiratory system - above the larynx
2• Lower respiratory system - below the larynx

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3
Q

Respiratory Tract

A

• Consists of a conducting portion:
- From nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles

• Consists of a respiratory portion:
- The respiratory bronchioles and alveoli (where gas exchange happens, if air does not make it to the alveoli then gas exchange doesn’t occur)

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4
Q

Nose

A
  • Air enters the respiratory system
    • Through nostrils or external nares
    • Into nasal vestibule
  • Nasal hairs
    • Are in nasal vestibule
    • Are the first particle filtration system
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5
Q

The nasal cavity

A

(Upper respiratory)

•The nasal septum (vomer and perpendicular plate)
-divides nasal cavity into left and right

•Superior portion of nasal cavity is the olfactory region
-Provides sense of smell

•Mucous secretions from paranasal sinus and tears
-Clean and moisten the nasal cavity

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6
Q

The pharynx

A

(Upper respiratory)

  • A chamber shared by digestive and respiratory systems
  • Extends from internal nares to entrances to larynx and esophagus
  • Divided into three parts
    1. The nasopharynx
    2. The oropharynx
    3. The laryngopharynx
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7
Q

Pharynx

A

(Upper respiratory)

• The Nasopharynx
- Superior portion of pharynx
- Contains pharyngeal tonsils and openings to left and right auditory tubes

• The Oropharynx
- Middle portion of pharvnx

• The Laryngopharynx
- Inferior portion of pharynx
- Extends from hyoid bone to entrance of larynx and esophagus

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8
Q

Larynx

A

(Lower respiratory)

• Larynx = A cartilaginous structure that surrounds the glottis
- Glottis is a narrow opening

• Cartilages of the Larynx (Three large, unpaired cartilages form the larynx)
1. Thyroid cartilage
2. Cricoid cartilage
3. Epiglottis

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9
Q

Cartilage Functions

A

• Thyroid and cricoid cartilages support and protect:
-The glottis and the entrance to trachea

•During swallowing:
-The larynx is elevated, and the epiglottis folds back over glottis
- Prevents entry of food and liquids into respiratory tract

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10
Q

Glottis

A

• Sound Production
- Air passing through glottis
-Vibrates vocal folds
-Produces sound waves

• Sound Production
-Sound is varied by:
• Tension on vocal folds
• Voluntary muscles

  • Speech is produced by:
    1- Phonation: Sound production at the larynx
    2- Articulation: Modification of sound by other structures
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11
Q

Trachea

A

(Lower respiratory)

  • Also called the windpipe
  • branches into right and left pulmonary bronchi
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12
Q

The Tracheal Cartilages

A

•15-20 tracheal cartilages
Larynx.
-Strengthen and protect airway
-Discontinuous where trachea contacts esophagus (c-shaped)

• The Primary Bronchi
- Right and Left Primary Bronchi
Trache:
-Separated by an internalridge (the earina/- shape)

•The Right Primary Bronchus
-Is larger in diameter than the left
-Descends at a steeper angle
-the right bronchi is larger than left bronchi because the right needs more air because it has 3 lobes while the left has 2 lobes

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13
Q

The Lungs

A

•Left and right lungs
- Are in left and right pleural cavities

•The base
-Inferior portion of each lung rests on superior surface of diaphragm

•Lobes of the lungs
-Lungs have lobes separated by deep fissures

• Lobes and Surfaces of the Lungs
- The right lung has three lobes
- The left lung has two lobes

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14
Q

Lung Shape

A

•Right lung
-Is wider
- Is displaced upward by liver

•Left lung
-Is longer
-Is displaced leftward by the heart forming the cardiac

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15
Q

The Bronchi

A
  • The Bronchial Tree
    • Is formed by the primary bronchi and their branches
  • Extrapulmonary Bronchi
    • The left and right bronchi branches outside the lungs
  • Intrapulmonary Bronchi
    • Branches within the lungs
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16
Q

Lungs- brochi

A

• One Primary Bronchus on each side (2 in the body)
• Secondary Bronchi
• Tertiary / Segmental bronchi
Supplies air to one bronchopulmonary segment
• Bronchiole
•Terminal bronchiole
• Respiratory bronchiole

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17
Q

More about bronchioles

A

• Bronchopulmonary Segments
- right lung has 10
- left lung has 8 or 9

• Bronchial Structure
- The walls of primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi
• progressively less cartilage and more smooth muscle - can expands contract
• Increased smooth muscle tension affects airway constriction and resistance

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18
Q

Bronchitis

A

•Inflammation of bronchial walls
-Causes constriction and breathing difficulty

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19
Q

Bronchioles

A
  • Each tertiary bronchus branches into multiple bronchioles
  • Bronchioles branch into terminal bronchioles
    • One tertiary bronchus forms about 6500 terminal bronchioles

• Bronchiole Structure
- Bronchioles
• Have no cartilage, only smooth muscle

• Autonomic Control
- Regulates smooth muscle
• Controls diameter of bronchioles
• Controls airflow and resistance in lungs

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20
Q

Bronchodilation

A
  • Dilation of bronchial airwavs
    _ Reduces resistance
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21
Q

Bronchoconstriction

A
  • Constricts bronchi
  • Increases resistance
  • Can be caused by histamines (gives symptoms of allergies)
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22
Q

Asthma

A
  • Excessive stimulation and bronchoconstriction
  • Stimulation severely restricts airflow
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23
Q

Terminal branchiole

A

Each terminal bronchiole branches to form several respiratory bronchioles, where gas exchange takes place

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24
Q

Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli

A

•Respiratory bronchioles are connected to alveoli along alveolar ducts
•Alveolar ducts end at alveolar sacs
-Common chambers connected to many individual alveoli

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25
Q

Macrophages in the lungs

A

•last line of defense
•white blood cell that can engulf bad things

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26
Q

Respiratory Defense System

A
  • Consists of a series of filtration mechanisms
  • Removes particles and pathogens

•Components of the Respiratory Defense System
- Mucous cells and mucous glands
• Produce mucus that bathes exposed surfaces

  • Cilia
    • Sweep debris trapped in mucus toward the pharynx (mucus escalator)
  • Filtration in nasal cavitv removes large particles
  • Alveolar macrophages engulf small particles that reach lungs
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27
Q

Respiratory Membrane

A
  • The thin membrane of alveoli where gas exchange takes place

• Three Layers of the Respiratory Membrane
1. Squamous epithelial cells lining the alveolus
2. Endothelial cells lining an adjacent capillary
3. Fused basement membranes between the alveolar and endothelial cells

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28
Q

Respiratory Epithelium

A

• Alveolar Epithelium
Is a very delicate, simple squamous epithelium
- Contains scattered and specialized cells
- Lines exchange surfaces of alveoli

• For gases to exchange efficiently:
- Alveoli walls must be very thin (<1 m)
- Surface area must be very large (about 35x surface area of the body)

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29
Q

External respiration

A
  • Includes all processes involved in exchanging O, and CO, with the environment
  • Breathing in/out, moving air into lungs, moving O, and CO, to and from cells.
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30
Q

Internal respiration

A
  • cellular respiration
  • Involves the uptake of 0, and production of CO, within individual cells
    External Respiration
    Internal
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31
Q

Three Processes of External Respiration

A
  1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
  2. Gas diffusion
    • Across membranes and capillaries
  3. Transport of O2 and CO2
    • Between alveolar capillaries
    • Between capillary beds in other tissues
32
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation

A
  • physical movement of air in and out of respiratory tract
  • Provides alveolar ventilation

• The Movement of Air
- Atmospheric pressure
• The weight of air
Has several important physiological effects

33
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

“the pressure and volume of a gas have an inverse relationship, when temperature is held constant.”

Defines the relationship between gas pressure and volume

34
Q

Pressure and Airflow to the Lungs

A
  • Air flows from area of higher pressure to area of lower pressure
  • One Respiratory Cycle
  • An inspiration (inhalation)
  • An expiration (exhalation)

• Pulmonary Ventilation
- Causes volume changes that create changes in pressure
- Volume of thoracic cavity changes
• With expansion or contraction of diaphragm or rib cage

35
Q

Breathing in

A

•Volume of lungs increase
•pressure inside decreases, so air flows in
(High to low)

36
Q

Breathing out

A

•volume inside lungs decreases
•pressure inside increases, so air flows out
(High to low)

37
Q

Two pleural cavities

A
  • The Pleura
    • Consists of two layers:
    1. Parietal pleura (outer laver)
    2. Visceral pleura (inner laver)

-Pleural fluid
• Lubricates space between two layers

• The Intrapleural Pressure
- Pressure in between parietal and visceral pleura
- Remains below atmospheric pressure throughout respiratory cycle

38
Q

Respiratory Muscles

A
  • Most important are:
    • The diaphragm
    • External intercostal muscles of the ribs
    • Accessory respiratory muscles
  • Activated when respiration increases significantly

• The Mechanics of Breathing
- Inhalation
• Always active
- Exhalation
• Active or passive

39
Q

The Respiratory Muscles

A

The most important skeletal muscles involved in respiratory movements are the diaphragm and the external Intercostals. These muscles are the primary respiratory muscles and are active during normal breathing at rest. The accessory respiratory muscles become active when the depth and frequency of respiration must be increased markedly.

40
Q

Lung Volumes

A

• Respiratory Rates and Volumes vary
• The number of breaths per minute (respiratory rate)
• The volume of air moved per breath (tidal volume)

• The Respiratory Minute Volume (VE)
- Amount of air moved per minute
respiratory rate x tidal volume (air moved during one resp. cycle)
- Measures pulmonary ventilation

41
Q

Respiratory Performance and Volume Relationships

A
  • Total lung volume is divided into a series of volumes and capacities useful in diagnosing problems
  • Four Pulmonary Volumes
    1. Resting tidal volume (Vt)
    2. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
    3. Residual volume
    4. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
    Anatomic dead space = volume of air in the conducting
    airways (no gas exchange “dead” air)
42
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation Effectiveness

A

Effectiveness of pulmonary ventilation largely determined by airway resistance, surface tension and pulmonary compliance

43
Q

Airway resistance

A

• anything that impedes air flow through respiratory tract
• largely determined by airway diameter

44
Q

Alveolar surface tension

A
  • alveoli are covered with thin film of liquid composed mainly of water creating gas-water boundary
  • reduces surface tension and allows alveolus to remain partially open even during expiration
45
Q

Pulmonary compliance

A
  • refers to the ability of lungs and chest wall to stretch
    • Distensibility of elastic tissue gives lungs the ability to stretch during inflation; increases compliance
    • Ability of the chest wall to move or stretch during inspiration; increases compliance
    • If compliance decreases, lungs are less able to expand and effectiveness of pulmonary ventilation decreases
46
Q

Gas Exchange

A

• Gas Exchange
- between blood and alveolar air
око um
- Across the respiratory membrane

• Depends on:
1. Partial pressures of the gases
2. Diffusion of molecules between gas and liquid

• The Gas Laws
- Diffusion occurs in response to concentration gradients
- Rate of diffusion depends on physical principles, or gas laws
• Boyle (P and V = inverse relationship)
• Dalton
• Henry

47
Q

Dalton’s law

A

“in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases”
• Each gas contributes to the total pressure
• In proportion to its number of molecules (Dalton’s law)

48
Q

Partial Pressure

A
  • The pressure contributed by each gas in the atmosphere
  • All partial pressures together add up to 760 mm Hg
49
Q

Henry’s Law

A

“at a constant temperature, the amount of a gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid”

  • When gas under pressure comes in contact with liquid gas dissolves in liquid until equilibrium is reached
50
Q

Diffusion and Respiratory Function

A
  • Direction and rate of diffusion of gases across the respiratory membrane
    • Determine different partial pressures and solubilities
51
Q

Five Reasons for Efficiency of Gas Exchange

A
  1. Substantial differences in partial pressure across the respiratory membrane
  2. Distances involved in gas exchange are short
  3. O2 and CO2 are lipid soluble
  4. Total surface area is large
  5. Blood flow and airflow are coordinated
52
Q

External respiration

A
  • Includes all processes involved in exchanging O, and CO, with the environment
  • Breathing in/out, moving air into lungs, moving O, and CO, to and from cells.
53
Q

Internal respiration

A
  • cellular respiration
  • takes place in cells
  • Involves the uptake of O2, and production of CO2 within individual cells
54
Q

Partial Pressures in Alveolar Air and Alveolar Capillaries

A
  • Blood arriving in pulmonary arteries has:
    • Low Po2
    • High Pco2
  • The concentration gradient causes:
    • O2, to enter blood
    • CO2 to leave blood
55
Q

Partial Pressures in the Systemic Circuit

A
  • Concentration gradient in peripheral capillaries is opposite of lungs
    • CO2 diffuses into blood
    • O2 diffuses out of blood
56
Q

Gas Transport

A

• Blood plasma
• Red Blood Cells (RBCS)

57
Q

O2 transport

A

• 2% dissolved in plasma
• 98% bound to Hemoglobin in RBCS

58
Q

Hemoglobin

A
  • O2 binds to iron ions in hemoglobin (Hb) molecules (- oxyhemoglobin)
    • reversible reaction
    • 4 O2 molecules per Hb
    • 280 million Hb molecules per RBC
59
Q

Hemoglobin Saturation

A
  • The percentage of heme units in hemoglobin molecules that contain bound oxygen

• Environmental factors affecting hemoglobin
- Po2, of blood
- Blood pH
- Temperature
- Metabolic activity within RBCS

60
Q

Hemoglobin and pH (and CO2)

A

• decrease in pH= increase in H+
•Hb binds excess H+
-Change in Hb shape
>O2 released more easily

61
Q

Bohr effect

A
  • Change in pH caused by CO2
    Increase in CO2, decrease in pH and an increase in O2 released

Muscle tissues are acidic (produce lots of CO2)

62
Q

Hemoglobin and temperature

A

•an increase in temp= increase in O2 released
•a decrease in temp= decrease in O2 released

Muscle tissues produce heat

63
Q

CO2 Transport

A

• By-product of cellular respiration
• CO, in the bloodstream can be carried three ways:
1. Converted to carbonic acid (70%)
2. Bound to hemoglobin within red blood cells (23%)
3. Dissolved in plasma (7%)

64
Q

CO2 transport and blood pH

A

•lungs control CO2
-an increase in CO2 leads to an increase in H+ which decreases pH and makes it more acidic
•kidneys control HCO3-
-retain/ excrete bicarbonate depending on blood pH

65
Q

CO2 transport and blood pH pt. 2

A

Respiratory rate and depth affect blood pH
- Slow, shallow -> increase CO2 in blood and decrease in pH (Bohr)
- Rapid, deep -> decrease CO2 in blood and increase in pH
• Changes in ventilation can partially fix blood pH when blood pH disturbed by metabolic factors

66
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

• Central chemoreceptors in brain
- Monitor pH

• Peripheral chemoreceptors
- Aorta and carotid arteries
• Monitor O2, CO2, pH

• Chemoreceptor stimulation alters rate/depth of respiration
- CO2, chemoreceptors more sensitive (too much CO2 will turn blood acidic)
- CO2 levels are main factor controlling respiratory rate/depth

67
Q

An increase in CO2 will..

A

-increase hydrogen ions which will decrease pH and make blood acidic

68
Q

A decrease in CO2 will..

A

Cause a decrease in hydrogen ions which will increase pH and make blood more basic (or alkaline)

69
Q

Hypoxia

A

hypo = low, oxia = oxygen

70
Q

cyanosis (cyano = blue)

A

Inadequate O, delivery to tissues

71
Q

Anemic hypoxia

A

•Not enough RBCs, abnormal or low Hb
•could be because of low iron or sickle cell anemia

72
Q

Ischemic hypoxia

A

impaired/blocked circulation

73
Q

Histotoxic hypoxia

A

•cells unable to use Oz, as in metabolic poisons (cyanide)
•cyanide binds to last protein on ETC blocking oxygen as last electron acceptor

74
Q

Hypoxemic hypoxia

A

•abnormal ventilation; pulmonary disease
•COPD, asthma, etc

75
Q

Carbon monoxide poisoning

A

•CO from burning fuels; 200X
greater affinity for Hb than oxygen
•CO binds to Hb so O2 cannot attach to Hb

76
Q

Carbon Monoxide from burning fuels

A

• Binds strongly to hemoglobin
• Takes the place of 02
• Can result in carbon monoxide poisoning

A & P Lecture (7 decks)

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