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A'level psychology > Research methods part 1 - Key Terms > Flashcards

Research methods part 1 - Key Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

Aim

A

The purpose of carrying out the investigation “to investigate whether…”

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2
Q

Participants

A

the people who participate in the psychological research. This is often abbreviated to ppts.

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3
Q

Conditions of the experiment

A

The different versions of the experiment that are carried out to find out if a specific variable affects behaviour.

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4
Q

Standardisation

A

every participant gets the same instructions and follows the exact same procedure of the experiment. This is to ensure that the only thing that could affect the behaviour is the variable you’re investigating.

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5
Q

Control

A

Keeping all variables the same across the different conditions and for each participant.

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6
Q

Independent variable (IV)

A

This is what is being changed across the different conditions to see if the change affects our results. The ‘cause’ of the behaviour.
* The IV can be naturally occuring eg. age/gender

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7
Q

Dependent variable (DV)

A

What we are measuring to see if the IV has affected the behaviour.

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8
Q

Operationalisation

A

Means clearing defining how you will manipulate your IV and clearly defining how you will measure you DV.
* For the IV you need to be specific what you are comparing.
* For the DV you need to be specific about the unit of measurement.

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9
Q

Hypthesis

A
  • It’s a prediction
  • A testable statement about how the IV will or will not affect the DV
  • Contains operationalised IV and DV
  • Can predicit the direction of the results will go in (directional hypothesis) or just predict a difference (non-directional hypothesis)
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10
Q

Null hypothesis

A

States that the IV will not affect the DV (there will be no difference in the results between the different conditions)
* always non-directional.

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11
Q

Alternative hypothesis

A

States that the IV will affect the DV (there will be a difference in the results between the conditions)
* Could be directional or non-directional.

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12
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

States the way they predict the results will go. eg. boys will score higher on the maths test than girls.
* This is based on research. If there is previous research into your topic of research, then the researcher has an idea how the results will be.

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13
Q

Non-directional

A

States there will be a difference but not what that difference will be. eg. there will be a difference in the maths test scores between boys and girls.
* If there is NO previous research into your topic of research, then the researcher has hopes that the research will give a significant result but not sure how or what direction.

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14
Q

GRAVE

Evaluation

A

Generalisabilty
Reliability
Application to the real world
Validity
Ethics

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15
Q

Evaluation

Generalisabilty

A

The extent to which the sample of participants you have used is typical or representative of other people and therefore the results can be generalised beyond the sample used in the study.

Consider the age-range, cultural background, experiences and gender of the participants in the sample. Could this have impacted on the results?

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16
Q

Evaluation

Reliabilty

A

The extent that you have tested all participants consistently in the same way each time you have carried out the study. The replicability of the study (can you repeat it?)

Studies that are reliable have a high level of control, standardised instructions and where the data is interpreted and collected in a consistent way.

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17
Q

Evaluation

Real World Application

A

The extent to which the study is useful. This could be because it provides us with new insight into why certain behaviours occur or because it leads to an intervention which improves people’s lives.

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18
Q

Evaluation

Validity

A

The extent to which the findings of a study are true.
Is it true that the IV did affect the DV?
Were the ppts displaying natural behaviour?
Is it true beyond the study?

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19
Q

Evaluation

Ethics

A

Is the study morally fair for the participants. Have we protected the participant’s welfare? we must be careful not to harm our participants in any way, to respect their rights to privacy, confidentiality.
There is an ethical code of conduct which researchers must follow. In the UK this is The British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics and Conduct (2018)

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20
Q

Type of Experiment

Lab Experiment

A
  • Controlled situation
  • Manipulation of IV to see effect on DV
    **Strengths: **
  • High degree of control=high level of replication (reliabilty increased)
  • Cause and effect can be established
    **Weaknesses: **
  • Can lack ecological validity (generalise to real life)
  • Higher chance of demand characteristics
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21
Q

Type of experiment

Field experiments

A
  • Natural environment
  • Manipulation of IV to see effect on DV
    **Stengths: **
  • Higher level of ecological validity
  • Reduces demand characteristics
    **Weaknesses: **
  • Less control over extraneous variables
  • Lower level of replication
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22
Q

Type of experiment

Quasi-Experiment

A
  • IV is naturally occuring (researcher has not manipulated it)
  • Can be in a lab or field
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23
Q

Experimental Design

A

The way in which ppts are allocated to the levels of the IV/conditions

24
Q

Experimental Design

Independent Measures Design

A

ppts only take part in one condition of the experiment
**Strengths: **
* No order, practice or fatigue effects affecting results
* Less chance of demand characteristics affecting results
* You can use the same task in each condition
* You can use single blind technique to reduce demand characteristics
**Weaknesses: **
More chance of participant variables affecting results.

25
Q

Experimental design

Repeated Measures Design

A

Ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment.
**Strengths: **
* You can use counterbalancing to reduce order effects
* Fewer ppts are used so good for when ppts are difficult to find
* Less chance of participant variables affecting results
**Weaknesses: **
* Order effects (practice or fatigue effects) can occur.
* More demand characteristics affecting results

26
Q

Experimental Design

Matched pairs Design

A

Ppts only take part in one condition of the experiment but are matched for characteristics that may influence their performance. One of each pair takes part in each condition.
**Strengths: **
* Less chance of participant variables affecting results
* You can use single blind technique to reduce demand characteristics
* You can use the same task In each condition
* No order, practice or fatigue effects affecting results
* Less chance of demand characteristics affecting results
**Weaknesses: **
It can be difficult to match everyone in the study across the conditions

27
Q

Issues

Demand characteristics

A

When the ppt tries to guess the aim of the study and then behaves in ways that they assume the psychologist wants them to.

28
Q

Issues

Participant Variables

A

Individual differences between ppts that could affect their behaviour in the study.

29
Q

Issues

Order effects

A

Where practice and fatique could affect the results in the later stages of the experiment.

30
Q

Issues

Practice and fatique effects

A

Practice effects – where a ppts performance on a task gets better due to practice
Fatigue effects - where a ppts performance on a task gets worse due to boredom or tiredness

31
Q

Overcoming issues

Counterbalancing

A

This can be used to reduce order effects. The researcher varies the order in which the ppt undertakes the conditions e.g. ppt1 does condition A then B, ppt 2 does condition B then A etc (ABBA)

32
Q

Overcoming issues

Random allocation/randomisation

A

This can be used to allocate ppts to the different condition. For example, put the names of all ppts in a hat and the first 10 picked out will be in condition 1. This can be used to reduce participant variables.

33
Q

Overcoming issues

Single blind technique

A

This can be used to reduce demand characteristics. The researcher does not tell the ppt which condition they are participating in (eg whether it is the experimental or control).

34
Q

Ethics for human ppts

Valid consent

A

Ppts should be competent to give consent and have enough information about the study to provide informed consent.
* For children, consent can be gained from parents/guardian
* If not possible to inform ppts of true aims before the study a full debrief afterwards should take place. Giving them the right to withdraw their data.

35
Q

Ethics for human ppts

Protection from harm

A

Ppts should be protected from any risks such as, physical harm, mental distress, embarrassment etc.. Ppts should not be exposed to any greater risk than they would be in their own lives.

36
Q

Ethics for human ppts

Right to withdraw

A

Ppts should be able to leave the study whenever they wish, and they should be informed this at the start of the study. Incentives cannot be taken away if they leave. This prevents ppts from thinking they must continue.

37
Q

Ethics for human ppts

Lack of deception

A

Ppts should not be deliberately misinformed.
* If it’s essential to deceive ppts (avoiding demand characteristics), a debrief should follow.

38
Q

Ethics for human ppts

Privacy

A

The researcher may enter physical space or emotional territory that the individual may want to keep to themselves.
* In an interview/ questionnaire ppts should be aware of their right to ignore questions they don’t want to answer.
* Ppts should be given their own individual space.
* People should only be watched in the public display.

39
Q

Ethics for human ppts

Confidentiality

A

All data should be stored separately from the ppts names and personal information. Names should never be published unless specifically agreed.
* Ppts information should not be shared with anyone outside of the study.
* Each ppt can be allocated a number to identify them or their initials.

40
Q

Ethics for human ppts

Debriefing

A

All ppts should be thanked and given the chance to ask questions after the study. Also, the true aims can be provided at this time.
Ensures they don’t want to withdraw their data. Still important to consider all possible distresses.

41
Q

What is a Case Study?

A

A Case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event or community. It can use as range of research methods to collect data.

42
Q

Evaluation

Strengths of case studies

A

Rich, in-depth data: Case studies allow researchers to gather detailed information, providing a thorough understanding.
Flexibility: Case studies can adapt, allowing for flexibility in data collection methods.
Hypothesis generation: Case studies can provide a basis for generating hypotheses for further research.
Naturalistic setting: providing a realistic and valid understanding of behaviour.

43
Q

Evaluation

Weaknesses of case studies

A

Lack of generalisability: Findings from case studies may not be applicable to larger populations due to the limited sample size or uniqueness of sample.
Subjectivity & bias: The researcher’s interpretation and subjective judgment may influence data collection, analysis, and reporting, potentially introducing bias into the study.
Ethical considerations: Researchers must carefully navigate ethical considerations, such as privacy, consent, and confidentiality. Case studies often involve studying individuals’ personal and sensitive information.
Limited control: Since case studies focus on real-life situations, researchers have limited control over variables and extraneous factors, making it difficult to establish causal relationships between variables.

44
Q

Case Studies

Triangulation

A

Triangulation improves validity. This is where different techniques should provide similar findings. eg. observations and interviews with the ppt and questions to their family should all lead to similar conclusions.

45
Q

Subjective data

A

Based on the personal perspective, the views of a person. Interpretations can vary between people. Subjective data can be high in validity.
eg. How happy a person feels on a 1-10 scale.

46
Q

Objective Data

A

Factual, data-based information. Objective data is more reliable than subjective.
eg. The level of cortisol in saliva.

47
Q

The use of children in psychological research

Practical/methodological issues

A
  1. Lack of language development - for very young children means that researchers need to find other ways of collecting data via self-report, other than standard questions.
  2. When data about children is collected through adults, specifically parents, they may be more mindful about being seen as a ‘bad parent’ and alter their response accordingly.
  3. Demand characteristics are more likely to occur. Older children may be less naïve, they may be more likely to want to please adults.
  4. Sampling issues can occur as accessing children can be a problem due to safe-guarding – more likely to be opportunity samples and therefore unrepresentative.
48
Q

The use of children in psychological research

Ethical issues

A
  1. Valid Consent - parents will give consent. For older children, consent should be requested in a ‘child friendly way’.
  2. Minimising harm – children may be more anxious than adults as no matter what experiment it is, in a lab it is a strange situation/an unusual place
  3. Withdrawl - children may not have the confidence to withdraw themselves or their results from a study.
49
Q

Sampling Techniques

Random sample

A
  • Where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
  • Put the names of people in the population into a hat. Then use a random number generator or list to select sample.
    **Strengths: **
  • More likely to be representative
  • Removes any researcher bias in selection
    **Weakness: **
    Sample can be unrepresentative by chance if similar people are selected.
50
Q

Sampling techniques

Opportunity sample

A
  • A sample of convenience. People who are easily accessible and available to take part.
  • Use ppts who are easier to access, (geographically close or known to the researcher).
    **Strengths: **
  • More likely to consent
  • Quicker & Easier
  • Removes any research bias in selection
    **Weaknesses: **
    Likely to be unrepresentative as ppts may be similar.
51
Q

Sampling techniques

Volunteer sample

A
  • Ppts self-select themselves to take part in the study.
  • Advertise by poster or via the media. Sometimes psychologist have to target specific places where the ppts needed will see the advert.
    **Strengths: **
  • More likely to consent
  • Quicker
  • More likely to return for repeat testing
  • Easier
  • Removes any research bias in selection
    **Weakness: **
    Similar people volunteer for research
52
Q

Target population

A

the group of people that our participants are selected from.

53
Q

Population

A

who we want the sample to represent – because we want to generalise our findings to the population. The population can sometimes be ALL people, ALL animals or ALL children, or it could be more specific such as ALL elephants or ALL people with phobias.

54
Q

Sample

A

The collective noun for the ppts who take part in the study.

55
Q

Size of sample

A
  • The larger the sample the more diverse.
  • If there are many conditions then there may only be a few ppts in each condition, this means they are unrepresentative.
56
Q

Types of Bias

A

Age-biased – all ppts are from a specific age group.
Gender biased – only male or female ppts are used.
Culture biased – only ppt from one culture/background are used
Participant variables – (Individual differences) all ppts share a certain characteristic such as similar IQ, social class, personality, experience

A'level psychology (8 decks)

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