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Pyschology > Research Methods - Paper 2 > Flashcards

Research Methods - Paper 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is an experimental method?

A

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on a dependent variable

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2
Q

What is the aim

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study

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3
Q

What is the hypothesis

A

A clear and precise statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated.

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4
Q

What is a directional hypothesis

A

States the direction of the difference of relationship (“the green skittle will have the least favourite”)

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5
Q

What is a non directional hypothesis

A

Does not state the direction of difference or relationship

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6
Q

What is a variable

A

Anything that can vary or change within an investigation

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7
Q

What does operationalisation means

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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8
Q

What is a extraneous variable

A

Any variable other than the independent variable which may affect the dependent variable if it is not controlled. Also known as nuisance variable

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9
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A kind of EV but the key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t talk if any change in DV is due to the IV or the Confounding variable.

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10
Q

What is a demand characteristic

A

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participants changing their behaviour within a research situation.

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11
Q

What is investigator effects

A

Any effect the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome the DV. This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of and interaction which participants during research process.

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12
Q

What is randomisation

A

The use of chanced methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental condition

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13
Q

What is standardisation

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

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14
Q

What type of experiment coukd control and extraneous variable?

A

Lab experiment

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15
Q

Quasi Experiment

A

Independent Variable already exists

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16
Q

What is Opportunity Sampling

A

non-random method of selecting participants for a study by choosing individuals who are readily available or convenient for the researcher, rather than using a random or systematic approach.

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17
Q

What is a natural experiment

A

researchers study the effects of naturally occurring events or conditions on people or groups, without deliberately manipulating variables. It allows for the observation of real-world situations that cannot be ethically or practically created in a controlled setting.

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18
Q

2 Features that take place in a Natural Experiment

A

Independent variable is not controlled
Researcher sees how it impacts the DV

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19
Q

What is a pilot study

A

small-scale research study conducted before the main research project to test and refine research methods, questionnaires, or procedures, and to identify potential issues or challenges.

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20
Q

Aims of Piloting

A
  • To see if the Procedure is right
  • Instructions correct
  • Design
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21
Q

What is repeated measures

A

same group of participants is used in all conditions or treatments within an experiment.

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22
Q

What is single blind

A

Participants don’t know what they are being tested on

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23
Q

What is Double Blind

A

Participant and the experimenter doesn’t know what condition they are in

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24
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

selecting participants at regular intervals from a larger population, following a specific pattern or system.

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25
Q

What is volunteer sampling

A

Chance method of Participants ask to join the research

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26
Q

What is counterbalancing

A

involves varying the order in which different conditions or treatments are presented to participants to ensure that the impact of these order effects is evenly distributed across the study, reducing potential biases.

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27
Q

What is a field experiment

A

This allows researchers to study behavior and phenomena in more natural and ecologically valid conditions.

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28
Q

3 features that take place in a Field Experiment

A

Controls the IV
Participants are randomly allocated
Real-world setting

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29
Q

What is a independent group

A

participants are divided into different groups, and each group is exposed to a different condition or treatment.

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30
Q

What is a laboratory experiment

A

All the other variables are controlled - in a controlled setting

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31
Q

3 features that take place in a lab experiment

A

Controlled Environment
Controls the IV
Participants are randomly allocated to the conditions

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32
Q

What is matched pairs

A

participant is closely paired with another based on similar characteristics (e.g., age, gender, IQ) to create two comparable groups

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33
Q

Strengths of Independent Groups

A

Less Likely to guess the aim of the study (prevents demand characteristics)
- Prevents Order Effects

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34
Q

What are order effects?

A

Performance in the second condition may be better because the participants know what to do (i.e., practice effect). Or their performance might be worse in the second condition because they are tired (i.e., fatigue effect).

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35
Q

Limitation of Independent Groups

A
  • Need more participants
  • Less efficient needs more money
  • Hard to compare (participant variables)
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36
Q

Strengths of repeated measures

A
  • Fewer Participants
  • Less money needed
  • No participant variables
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37
Q

Limitations of repeated measures

A
  • More likely to guess the aim
  • Order effects ( counterbalancing)
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38
Q

Strengths of Matched Pairs

A
  • No Order Effects
  • Tries to reduce Participant Variables
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39
Q

Limitations of Matched Pairs

A

It takes ages to find the match and can be a difficult process

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40
Q

What is Random Allocation

A

Chance methods to pick who does what experiment

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41
Q

What is Social Facilitation Theory

A

The presence of others may improves individual task performances

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42
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Research Method in which psychologists record behavior in a natural behavior, without any attempt to manipulate or control the situation. Aim to study behavior as it occurs spontaneously. (Real Life situation)

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43
Q

Controlled Observation

A

Researchers carefully manipulate and control the conditions under which observations are made. Allows for precise study of specific variables while maintaining control over potential confounding factors.

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44
Q

Overt Observation

A

Form of Observation in which subjects or participants are aware that they are being watched.

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45
Q

Covert Observation

A

Subjects or participants are not aware that they are being watched. This is done to stop influencing the subject’s behavior.

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46
Q

Participant Observation

A

Researchers actively take part in the activities of the groups or individuals being studied. Usually involves immersing oneself in the culture of the environment under investigation to gain deeper understanding.

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47
Q

Nonparticipant observation:

A

Researchers remain separate from the subjects or groups being observed. The researcher does not actively participate in the activities but rather observes from a distance.

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48
Q

Structured observation:

A

Researchers use a predetermined set of specific criteria or a structured observation schedule to systematically record behavior. Allows for consistency and comparability in observations across different cases. `

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49
Q

Unstructured observation:

A

Involves collecting data without a pre-defined checklist. Researchers use a more flexible approach to observe and record whatever seems relevant to the research question.

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50
Q

Event sampling:

A

Observational method where researchers record specific events or behavior or events when given a time frame.

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51
Q

Sign Testing

A

Used the test to analyse the different scores between related items

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52
Q

peer review

A

The assessment of scientific work people who are specialists in the same field

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53
Q

Correlation

A

A mathematical technique in which a researcher invedigated an association between two variables,es called co-variables

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54
Q

Co- variables

A

The variables investigated within a correlation, for example height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause-and-effect relationship

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55
Q

Positive correlation

A

As one co-variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise tend to be positively correlated.

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56
Q

Negative Correlation

A

As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, the number of people in a room and amount of personal space tend to be negatively correlated.

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57
Q

Zero Correlation

A

When there is no relationship between the co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru is likely to be zero.

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58
Q

Qualitative data

A

Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although qualitative data may be converted to numbers for the purposes of analysis).

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59
Q

Quantitive

A

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.

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60
Q

Primary Data

A

Information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.

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61
Q

Secondary data

A

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics.

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62
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data

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63
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data.

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64
Q

Mean

A

Average by adding all the numbers and dividing by how many numbers

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65
Q

Median

A

When a value in a data set are arranged lowest to highest

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66
Q

Mode

A

Most frequent item in a data set

67
Q

Measures of dispersion

A

General term for any measure of spread or variation in a set of scores

68
Q

Range

A

Calculation worked out thr dispersion in a set of scores.

69
Q

Standard deviation

A

Measure of dispersion in a set of scores.

70
Q

Meta Analysis

A

The process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic. Aim is too produce a overall statistical conclusion

71
Q

What are the 3Ds and what do they find?

A

Data, Design and difference

72
Q

normal distribution

A

An arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a pattern in which the mean, median and/or mode falls in the centre

73
Q

Case studies

A

In depth description and analyst S of a individual, groups or eventinstitution

74
Q

Content analysis

A

Enables direct study of behaviour by examining communication thatpeopleproduce ) 09°texts ) females TV / phoney film

75
Q

Coding - the stage of content analysis

A

Communication is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories. - Words, phrases and sentences

76
Q

Thematic analysis

A

An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves indentifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes usually emerge once data has been coded

77
Q

Case Studies - Examples

A

Anna O
Little Hans

78
Q

Case Studies - Strengths

A

Create opportunities for a rich yield of data, and the depth analysis can turn to bring high levels of validity
The detail collected in a single case may lead to interesting findings that conflict with previous theories and create new pathways fri research

79
Q

Case Studies - Weakness

A

Little control over the numbers of variables
Difficult to establish any casual relationship between variables
Case studies are unusual and hard to replicate
Small sample size, hard to generalised

80
Q

Content Analysis - How many steps

A

5

81
Q

Content Analysis - What are the 5 steps

A
  1. Data Collected
  2. Researchers reads through or examines the data making themsleves familiar with it
  3. Research indemnified coding unite
  4. Data is analysed by applying thr coding unite
  5. A tally is made the number of times coding unite appear
82
Q

Content Analysis - Key Study Name

A

Manstead and McCulloch

83
Q

Content Analysis Manstead and McCulloch - Aim

A

Study to establish whether men and women were depicted differently in advertisements and in what respects

84
Q

Content Analysis Manstead and McCulloch - Procedure

A

170 Adverts were analysed by classifying following attributes of their adult central figures; sex, mode of presentation, relationship to product, role, location, arguments, rewards and product taupesn

85
Q

Content Analysis Manstead and McCulloch - Findings

A

Men and women portrayed in different ways
Women portrayed more than men in being product users and in dependent roles (home etc)

86
Q

Content Analysis Manstead and McCulloch - Conclusions

A

Considered in the context of other studies of sec role stereotyping in thr mass media.

87
Q

Strengths of Content Analysis

A

Reliable way to analyse qualitative data, as coding units aren’t up to interpretation
Not too time consuming
High external validity
Allows a statistical analysis to be conducted if needed d

88
Q

Weakness of Content Analysis

A

Causality cannot be established as it only describes the data
Cannot extract any deeper meaning
Context is ignored
Identifications of themes are subjective meaning thr comfluwisojs may lack scruintyn and objective

89
Q

Thematic Analysis - How many steps

A

4

90
Q

4 steps of thematic analysis

A
  1. Researcher becomes familiar with data by re-reading it multiple times
  2. Generate main themes
  3. Review themes and identifying sub-themes and examples
  4. Produce a report
91
Q

What does thematic analysis doc

A

SUMMARISE

92
Q

Thematic analysis Advantages

A

Researchers may idenitfy unexpectedly themes, providing guide limes for future research
Analysis report is flexible so that the analysis can be accosted to thr data
Provides a lot of detail that only qualitative data can miss

93
Q

Disadvantages of thematic analysis

A

Themes are identified and results may be due to investigator bias reducing thr relatability and validity of the findings
Thematic analysis can be a time consuming process

94
Q

Reliability

A

Refers to the Consistency of a research atudy or measuring test.

95
Q

Reliability - Two categories

A

Internal and External Reliability

96
Q

Reliability - Internal

A

Describes the internal consistency of a measure, such as the different questions in a questionaire are all meanings of the same conscrunt

97
Q

Reliability - External

A

Assess consistencey of a measure from one use to another.

98
Q

Reliability - Internal method

A

Split half method

99
Q

Reliability - Split Half Method

A

Internal type of reliability.
Measures the extent of which all parts of the tests contribute equally to what is being measured

100
Q

Reliability - External methods

A

Test Re-Test
Inter-rate

101
Q

Reliability - Test Re test

A

Asessing external validity
A method of asessing the realibilty of a questionaire and interviewss
The two sets of scores are then corellated to see if they are similar.

If they are simialr the correlation shows a strong positive relationsip (0.8)

102
Q

Reliability - Inter-observer reliability

A

External method of testing reliabilty

Agreement between two or more obseervers
Small pilot stidy and to checl of the behavioural categories is in the same way

Two observers will watch the same event and record it infividually and then share results

If there is a strong positive relationship than the test is considered to be a strong positive relationship

0.8

103
Q

Improve Reliability of Questionnaire

A

Items can be deselected and rewritten
If some of ther items are vague or too complect it can be interpreted differently be the same person on different occasions

Replace open questions with closed questions

104
Q

Improve Reliability of Interviews

A

Same individual to ask the question eachtime
Structured interviews

105
Q

Improve Reliability of Experiments

A

Lab researchers having strict control over all the procedures such as the instructions that the participant have recieved. Using standardised procedures too

106
Q

Improve Reliability of Observations

A

Behavioural categories be fully operationialised which means there will be less interpretation of behaviour,

107
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which an observed effect from a psychological test,observation experiment etc is geniuine.

108
Q

Internal Validity

A

Whether the effects observed in a experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and nit some other factor such as demand characteristics.

109
Q

External Validity

A

External/ecological validity is concerned with generalising findings to real life situations.

Refers to the task participants are required to do in the study
Everyday taskm then the findings would be in high external validity
Refers to the setting of the study
Conducted in a natural setting, then the findings would be high in external validity.

110
Q

Temperol Validity

A

Issue whether findings from a particular study or conce[t within a theory is true over time

111
Q

Internal Validity Assessment - Face Validity

A

Face Validity us simply whether the test appears at face value, to measure what it claims too. This can be done by simply looking at the measuring instrument

112
Q

Internal Validity Assessment - Concurrent Validity

A

Demostrated when the results are obtained are very close to or match. Those obtained by another recognised and established test.

Close agreement (+.8) between the two steps of data would indicate that the new test has a high concurrent validity

113
Q

Improving Validity - Experiment

A
  1. Using a control group, then we can compare and have a greater confidence that it was the effect of the IV, that has caused the change.
  2. Standardise procedures: should minimise the impact of participants reactivity and investigator effects on the validity of the outcome
  3. Single blind and Double Blind
114
Q

Improving Validity - Questionnaire

A
  1. Data is anonymous
  2. Many tests include a lie scale, this is to order to asses the consitencey of a response to control for the effects of social desirbility bias
115
Q

Improving Validity - Observation

A
  1. Observational research into naturalistic settings tend to produce findings that are high in ecological validity as there may be minimal intervation by the researcher
    even more if it is covert
116
Q

Improving Validity - Qualitative Research

A

Methods tend to have high ecological validity due to the depth and detail associated with case studies, interviews etc.

117
Q

Inferential Testing - 3 Ds

A

Design, Data and Difference

118
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Independent Groups and Nominal Data

A

Chi-Squared

119
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Independent Groups and Ordinal Data

A

Mann Whitney

120
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Independent Groups and Interval Data

A

Unrelated T-Test

121
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Matched Pairs and Nominal Data

A

Sign Test

122
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Matched Pairs and Ordinal

A

Wilxcon

123
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Matched Pairs and Interval Data

A

Related T-Test

124
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Correlation with Nominal Data

A

Chi Squared

125
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Correlation with Ordinal Data

A

Spearman’s rho

126
Q

Inferential Testing - Choosing a Stats test with Correlation with Interval

A

Pearsons R

127
Q

Nominal Data

A

Can be placed into separate categories. Usally involves counting the frequencey of behaviours

Eg. Categorising people due to their hair colour, shoe size, attachmanet style etc

128
Q

Ordinal Data

A

Datat can be ranked or Placed in some kind of order but the difference between the values is no the same.

129
Q

Interval Data

A

Data has a standardised measurement such as time, weight, temperature

130
Q

Evaluation of Nominal Data

A

Easily generated from closed questions, questionnaires, interviews. Can be generated quickly and the mode is the measure of centeral tendencey

No scale of refrence. Can’t express it’s true complexity and no measure of dispersion

131
Q

Evaluation of Ordinal Data

A

Ordinal data provides more detail than nominal data as the scores are ordered in a linear fashion

Intervals between scores are not of equal value. Means that an average (the mean) cannot be used as a measure of centeral tendencey

132
Q

Evaluation of Interval Data

A

Interval level data is considered more informative than the nominal and ordinal levels of measurements. Gaps in score or more of equal value which makes results more reliable

Intervals are arbitrarty.

133
Q

Statistical Tests - Level of significance

A

<0.05 (0.5%).

134
Q

Use of Statistical Tables and critical values

A

The results of a statistical test must be compared to the critical value in order for the results to be calculated as significant or not

If the Statistical test has a ‘r’ in the name the observed value must be queal to or greater than the critical value.

135
Q

Questionnaire - Open Questions

A

Allow participants to answer however they wish and therefore qualitative data is given. As there is no fixed number of responses to select from.

136
Q

Questionnaire - Closed Questions

A

Restrict the Participants to a predeteremined set of responses and generate qualitiartive data.

Eg. Checklists, likert response scale or a ranking scale

137
Q

Questionnaire - Open Questions Evaluation

A

Strengths - Less Chance of researcher Bias.

Weakness- Social desireability, ps try and portray themselevs in the best light

138
Q

Questionnaire - Closed Questions Evaluation

A

Strengths - Quanatitive data, which is easier to analyse statistically and in graph format
Researcher csn look for patterns and trends in the data that can lead to further research being conducted

Limitations - The researcher is limited in responses. There is also a response bias mesning the PS may of not read all the questions properly and select yes for each otf their answers

139
Q

Ethical Issues

A

Considerations researchers make before, during and after research which is conducted.

140
Q

Ethical Issues - British Psychological Society (BPS)

A

Deception
Right to withdraw
Informed Consent
Privacy and Confidentiality
Protection from Harm

141
Q

Ethical Issues - What is Deception

A

When information is deliberately witheld from participants or knowing that they are misled.

142
Q

Ethical Issues - What is Right To withdraw

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Participants are allowed to remove themselves from the study at any stage. This includes after research has been conducted

143
Q

Ethical Issues - What is Informed Consent

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When someone consents to to participate in the research and id fully informed which meansthe aoms of the research should be clear

144
Q

Ethical Issues - What is Privacy

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Right of individuals to decide how information about them will be communicated with others

145
Q

Ethical Issues - What is Confidentiality

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A persons personal information is protected by law under the data protection act both during and after the experiment

146
Q

Ethical Issues - What is Protection from Harm

A

Psychologists have the responsibility to protect their participants from physical or psychological harm, including stress

The risk of harm must be no greater than that which they are exposed to in everyday life

147
Q

Ethical Issues - Why is it unethical and how to deal with it if it is broken (Right to Withdraw)

A

May feel unnecessary or undue stress and are therefore not protected from harm

At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim of the research. They are able to withdraw the publication of their resu;ts

148
Q

Ethical Issues - Why is it unethical and how to deal with it if it is broken (Deception)

A

If it prevents participants from giving fully informed consent which means that they might be taking part in research that goes against their values or beliefs

At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim of the research. They are able to withdraw the publication of their resu;ts

149
Q

Ethical Issues - Why is it unethical and how to deal with it if it is broken (Informed Consent)

A

Lack of informed consent may mean that the participants is taking part in the research that goes against their wishes and beliefs.

150
Q

Informed consent - Presumptive Consent

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involves taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research, including any deception which may result

151
Q

Informed Consent - Prior General consent

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Involves participants agreeing to take part beforehand in numerous psychological investigations, which may or may not involve decpetion

152
Q

Informed Consent - Retrospective Consent

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Involves participants giving consent for their participation after already taking part, for instance, if they were not aware that they were the subject of an investigation

153
Q

Informed Consent - Children as participants

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Involves gaining the consent of the parents in writing for children under the age of 16 to participate in any psycholgical research

154
Q

Ethical Issues - Why is it unethical and how to deal with it if it is broken (Privacy)

A

A researched may obtain more info onn a participant that the participant doesn’t want to give. Whcih is an invasion of privact

Participants should be provided with fully informed consent and the right to withdraw at any stage

155
Q

Ethical Issues - Why is it unethical and how to deal with it if it is broken (Confidentiality)

A

Persons details may be used by other parties without the partipants permission

Participants are provided with a fake name, number or initals to protect their identity to protect their identity and to assure anonmity

156
Q

Ethical Issues - Why is it unethical and how to deal with it if it is broken (Protection from harm)

A

Participants should leave the research in the same state as they entered it. If they are harmed, they may suffer long term effects

Researchers should remind the participants of their right to withdraw throughout the research. Researcher should terminate the experimetnt kf their is high levels of phsycoal or psychological ahrm

157
Q

Features of Science -
Empirical Methods

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Idea that knowledge is gained from direct experiences in a objective, systematic and controlled manner to produce quanitive data

158
Q

Features of Science
Replicability

A

The ability to conduct research again and achieve consistent results

159
Q

Falsifiability

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The idea that a research hypothesis could be proved wrong. Scientific research can never be ‘proven’ to be true only subjected to research attempts.

160
Q

Paradigm

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Set of shared assumptions and methods within a particular discimple

161
Q

Paradigm Shifts

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A popular opion changes over time

162
Q

Type I error

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Occurs in situations where the null hypothesis has been rejected and the experimental/ alternative hypothesis accepted. When it should be the other way round
(False Positive)

163
Q

Type II Error

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Occurs when the researcher has accepted the null hypothesis and it should of been the other way round. This can also be referred as a false negative.

Pyschology (7 decks)

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