Research methods - Observations Flashcards
what kind of data does observation produce
primary data as the researcher obtains the data themselves
what may you see hypotheses referred to as
alternative hypotheses- the must be fully operationalised
define behavioural categories
the behaviours that are to be observed and recorded
what must behavioural categories be
mutually exclusive, clearly operationalised, objective and observable
where are behavioural categories noted
behavioural checklist
define the coding frame
a record of the criteria used to classify behaviours. it may include definitions of the codes used
give a weakness of behavioural categories
behaviours may be missed as behaviours are complex so not all are written down in the checklist - reduced accuracy
give a strength of behavioural categories
produces quantitative data because observers use tallies. This is easier to interpret - easily spot trends and patterns in behaviours
define event sampling
a researcher recording an event every time it happens during a specified time frame
define time sampling
a researcher observes behaviour at regular interval for a specified amount of time, over a specified period of time.
what are strengths of event sampling
it is less likely that behaviour of interest will be missed
useful when behaviours are infrequent
what are weaknesses of event sampling
may miss behaviours if too much is happening at once or researcher is fatigued
what are strengths of time sampling
reduces time spent of observation - may increase accuracy
provides insight into how much time a participant spends in a particular activity
what are weaknesses of time sampling
behaviours may be missed - reducing validity
accuracy is reduced if several participants are observed at the same time
what is a structured observation
pre-determined checklists and categories
what is a strength of structured observation
quantitative data - comparable and easy to analyse
what is a weakness of structured observation
frequencies lack meaning
what is unstructured observation
no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in as much detail as possible
what is a strength of unstructured observation
qualitative data - in depth and understanding,
what is a weakness of unstructured observation
difficult to do - likely to miss behaviour
what is controlled observation
lab setting, contained
what is a strength of controlled observation
control over extraneous variables so high internal validity
what is a weakness of controlled observation
lack of ecological validity
what is naturalistic observation
real world setting
what is a strength of naturalistic observation
realistic behaviour - valid
what is a weakness of naturalistic observation
hard to replicate
what is participant observation
observer is part of the group they’re observing
what is a strength of participant observation
in-depth understanding of what is happening - first hand experience and context
what is a weakness of participant observation
can’t take notes so may have to rely on memory - lower validity and reliability
observer bias
what is non-participant observation
observer is not part of the group they are observing
what is a strength of non-participant observation
objective, reliable data
what is a weakness of non-participant observation
may become aware - Hawthorne effect
what is overt observation
participant fully aware of observer
what is a strength of overt observation
consent- ethical
what is a weakness of overt observation
demand characteristics - ps guesses aims and tries to act/not act accordingly
what is covert observation
participant not aware of observer
what is a strength of covert observation
no demand characteristics
what is a weakness of covert observation
raises ethical concerns - no informed consent
when are observations reliable
if we gather the same results when the same observation of the same event is made a second time
Describe inter observer reliability
use more than one observer and compare the ratings of two or more observers, checking for agreement in their measurements (if there is agreement there is reliability)
how is agreement between observers calculated
using a correlation
what could affect inter-observer reliability
observer fatigue, poorly operationalised checklists, observer bias, controlled vs naturalistic, training of observer
what is validity
whether a study measures or examines what it claims to measure or examine
why could observations lack validity
observer bias, setting
Define inter-observer reliability
The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way
How could validity be improved when conducting observations (5 ways)
Use more than one observer
Observer and participants kept unaware of the aims (double blind procedure)
Carry out a pilot study
Have fully operationalised behaviour categories and codes
Ensure all observers are fully trained in the use of behaviour categories/ codes
Why does using more than one observer improve validity
The data can be averaged across, thereby reducing the impact of any biases
