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Research Methods (MET) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?

A
  • Aim: general statement of purpose
  • e.g., to test a theory / relationship between variables
  • Hypothesis: testable prediction …
  • …of a difference or correlation between variables
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2
Q

Explain the difference between directional and non- directional hypotheses (2). Identify when each is used

A
  • Directional: direction of difference / correlation specified, e.g., ‘more than’
  • When a theory / previous research suggests a specific direction
  • Non-directional: just ‘a’ difference predicted, but not which direction
  • When there is no previous research or previous research is contradictory
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3
Q

Explain what is involved in an experiment (3) and what is the purpose of doing an experiment (1)?

A
  • Researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV)
  • …measures a dependent variable (DV) and …
  • …controls extraneous variables
  • To establish a causal relationship between variables
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4
Q

Explain what is meant by the term ‘operationalisation’

A
  • Specifying precisely how…
  • … the IV is manipulated and
  • …how the DV is measured

(or, for correlations, how co-variables are measured)

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5
Q

Identify what is wrong with this hypothesis (1):
‘Memory is better with immediate than delayed recall’
Rewrite it to rectify the flaws

A
  • It is poor as hypotheses should incorporate operationalised variables
  • e.g. ‘More words will be correctly recalled if recall occurs immediately after learning than after a (e.g) a 30 second delay.’
  • IV identifiable: delay v no delay
  • DV identifiable: number of words recalled
  • Direction explicit: ‘more’ words
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6
Q

What are standardised instructions (2) and how do they relate to investigator effects (2)?

A
  • Instructions which are read out to participants…
  • …telling them exactly what to do
  • They partially control investigator effects…
  • …as experimenter is not free to say different things to different ppts.
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7
Q

What are extraneous variables? (1) Identify two types of extraneous variables, giving an example of each (2x2)

  • Variables which, if not controlled, might affect the DV
  • Situational
  • e.g. noise, time of day
  • Participant
  • e.g. age, intelligence

Track progress

1 / 5

A
  • Variables which, if not controlled, might affect the DV
  • Situational
  • e.g. noise, time of day
  • Participant
  • e.g. age, intelligence
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8
Q

What are confounding variable (CV) and what is the relationship between extraneous and confounding variables (CV)?

A
  • A CV is an EV which has not been controlled…
  • … and which has actually affected the DV
  • So an EV is a variable which might become a CV
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9
Q

What are demand characteristics and their possible effects?

A
  • Clues revealing the study’s purpose
  • Ppts may then display participant reactivity, e.g. try to
  • Do what they think is expected (‘please you’) OR
  • Do the opposite (‘screw you’)
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10
Q

What are investigator effects?

A
  • Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome
  • Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome
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11
Q

Explain the difference between controlled and naturalistic observations

A

Controlled

  • A structured / designed situation

Naturalistic

  • In setting in which behaviour would normally occur
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12
Q

Explain the difference between covert and overt observations

A

Covert

  • Watching participants without their knowledge & consent
  • Observer is hidden / not visible

Overt

  • Watching participants with their knowledge & consent
  • Observer is visible / not hidden
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13
Q

Explain the difference between participant and non- participant observations

A

Participant

  • Researcher becomes part of the group and interacts with the participants

Non-participant

  • Researcher stays separate from the participants
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14
Q

Explain the key opposing strength and limitation of naturalistic observations and controlled observations

A

Naturalistic

  • Higher ecological validity
  • i.e. can generalise findings to the real world …
  • …but less control

Controlled

  • More control over the situation…

… e.g., the set- up

…but lower ecological validity

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15
Q

Explain the key opposing strength and limitation of covert and overt observations

A

Covert

  • Removes ppt reactivity…
  • …all behaviour is natural, increasing validity…
  • …but is less ethical as pps do not give consent

Overt

  • More ethical as pps give informed consent…
  • …but increases ppt reactivity as they are aware of being observed
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16
Q

Explain the key opposing strength and limitation of participant and non- participant observations

A

Participant

  • Researcher experiences situation as participant does, increasing insight and validity…
  • …but may get too immersed in it and lose objectivity

Non participant

  • Allows researcher to stay objective…
  • …but lacks immersion in the situation
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17
Q

Explain the three key features of an experiment

A
  • Researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) (or it changes / differs somehow)
  • Researcher measures effect of this on dependent variable (DV)
  • Control over extraneous variables
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18
Q

Explain how both field and natural experiments differ from a laboratory experiment (2) and how field experiments differ from natural experiments

A
  • Field and natural experiments are carried out in the real world …
  • …rather than in a controlled setting.
  • Field experiments involve manipulation of an IV…
  • …while in natural experiments they are due to events
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19
Q

Explain how natural experiments differ from quasi- experiments

A
  • Natural: IV varies due to an event
  • Quasi: IV varies because of a group difference
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20
Q

Explain why quasi- experiments are unusual compared to the other types of experiment (

A
  • No change in an IV: pre- existing difference
  • No specified location: can take place anywhere

(Seems to include studies that are not really experiments)

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21
Q

Compare lab, field and natural experiments in terms of ability to control extraneous variables (2) Justify your sequencing

A
  • Lab > field > natural
  • Due to decreasing control over events during the experiment
  • Can control variables in lab
  • Some control, but too much going on and many unexpected events in field
  • No control at all in natural
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22
Q

Compare lab, field and natural experiments in terms of likelihood of demand characteristics (2) Justify your sequencing

A
  • Lab > field and natural
  • Due to pps knowing they are in an experiment
  • Lab: always know they are in experiment
  • Field: usually don’t know, but may suspect or situation may be unusual
  • Natural: don’t know, and nothing manipulated so likely to feel normal
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23
Q

Compare lab, field and natural experiments in terms of ecological validity (2) Justify your sequencing

A
  • Natural > field > lab
  • Due to greater generalisability to real- life situations
  • Natural is real- life
  • Field is where behaviour usually occurs
  • Lab is artificial situation
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24
Q

Compare lab, field and natural experiments in terms of population validity

A
  • Depends
  • Lab can actively recruit representative samples…
  • …but rarely do…
  • and even then but pps have to volunteer
  • Field and natural can measure behaviour in pps who would not normally volunteer to take part in lab studies
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25
Q

Identify what quasi- experiments CAN establish about group differences, and what they CANNOT establish

A

That there are group differences

  • …but not why
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26
Q

Compare lab, field and natural experiments in terms of possibility of obtaining informed consent from participants

A

Lab

  • Easy …
  • …as pps are recruited for study

Field

  • Unlikely…
  • …as pps are usually unaware they are in experiment

Natural

  • Depends…
  • … on whether pps are recruited or if data is collected without their knowledge
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27
Q

Explain what is meant by informed consent in psychological research (3)
Explain the most common way of dealing with informed consent (

A
  • Involves making ppts aware of any aspect of a study that would affect their willingness to participate
  • e.g., the aims, its procedures, their rights and what their data will be used for
  • Ppts can then make an informed judgement about whether they would like to take part.
  • Ppts should be issued with a consent letter …
  • …detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate.
  • This is then signed by the participant (if old enough to understand) and parent (if the ppt. is under 16)
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28
Q

Explain what is involved in obtaining presumptive consent (2)
Explain two limitations of obtaining consent in this way

A
  • Asking other people who could have taken part in the research…
  • … to decide whether the deception / stress is justified
  • Cannot be presumed to be representative of the population
  • Not actually going to take part, so less concerned about ethics of study
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29
Q

Explain what is meant by prior general consent (2)
Explain one limitation of obtaining prior general consent

A
  • Getting permission to deceive a pp
  • Usually consent is obtained as part of being involved in a number of experiments, e.g., as part of a course
  • Pps may be wary knowing there is a possibility that each experiment is ‘the one with the deception / stress’
  • Affecting behaviour in all experiments
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30
Q

Explain what is meant by retrospective consent (1)
Explain one limitation of obtaining retrospective consent

A

Obtain consent after the study for use of data

  • Not really consent…
  • …just right to withdraw data
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31
Q

Explain what is meant by ‘deception’ in research.(2)
Explain how psychologists can deal with issues of deception

A
  • Deliberately misleading pps during study…
  • …or being misleading by withholding information
  • Acceptable only if there is a ‘strong scientific or medical justification’ for deception
  • In which case, at the end of the study, give ppts. a full debrief to make them aware of the true aims.*
  • This debrief includes asking for retrospective consent. / giving right to withdraw data
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32
Q

Explain what is meant by ‘protection from harm’ in research. (2)
Explain how psychologists can deal with issues of protection

A
  • Participants should not be placed at risk of physical or psychological harm
  • Study should be no more stressful than everyday life
  • If participants have been subject to stress, the researcher should provide counselling, if they require it
  • Debriefing is not an acceptable way of ‘dealing with’ protection
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33
Q

Explain what is meant by ‘privacy and confidentiality’ in research (2)
Explain how psychologists can deal with issues of privacy and confidentiality

A
  • Pps have right to control information about them
  • Others should not know (or be able to work out) identity / behaviour of pps
  • Anonymity actively maintained in databases
  • Researchers usually do not publish names
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34
Q

Explain what is meant by ‘right to withdrawal’ in research (2)
Explain how psychologists can deal with issues of right to withdrawal

A
  • Pps have the right to cease to participate in a study…

*…at any point and without giving a reason

  • This should be explained at the outset
  • Pps should also have option to withdraw data at end
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35
Q

Explain when it is ethically acceptable not to obtain any consent from participants

A
  • Acceptable if they could normally expect to be observed in the situation
  • …i.e., it is in a public place
  • e.g., in (some) covert observations / field experiments
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36
Q

Identify the organisation which produces ethical guidelines for psychologists in the UK

A

British Psychological Society (BPS)

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37
Q

Identify the 3 experimental designs used by psychologists and explain what is involved in each

A
  • Independent groups
  • Different pps in each condition
  • Repeated measures
  • Pps take part in all conditions
  • Matched pairs
  • Pps matched with someone similar in other condition(s) on a relevant participant variable / individual difference
38
Q

Explain what is meant by individual differences and order effects in the context of experimental design

A

Individual differences

  • Pps differ in many ways …
  • …which may interfere with effect of IV on DV

Order effects

  • Events in experiment occur in an order…
  • …so earlier events may affect later events
39
Q

Explain the main strength and limitation of using an independent groups design, and how the latter can be controlled

A
  • Strength: no order effects
  • Limitation: individual differences between pps
  • Control: random allocation to conditions
40
Q

Explain the main strength and limitation of using a repeated measures design (2), and two ways the latter can be controlled

A
  • Strength: no individual differences between pps
  • Limitation: order effects possible
  • Control 1: counterbalancing
  • 1/2 of pps take part in conditions in one order, 1/2 the other way round
  • Control 2: randomisation
  • Items from conditions are randomly mixed together (e.g., in Stroop task)
41
Q

Explain why matched pairs is the ‘best of both worlds’, yet is rarely used

A
  • Avoids order effects (unlike repeated measures)

and

  • Minimises individual differences (unlike independent groups)

but

  • Expensive and time- consuming to use
42
Q

Explain how a researcher would implement random allocation in an independent groups design

A
  • Each pp in the sample could be given a number…
  • … which is put into a hat / computer program.
  • The first 50 numbers drawn out of the hat / by the software …
  • …would be allocated to one of the groups.
43
Q

Explain how a researcher would implement counterbalancing in a repeated measures design (4) How does this control for order effects?

A
  • The sample would be randomly allocated by hat method/software…
  • … to take part in conditions in one of two orders
  • Condition A then condition B

or

  • Condition B then condition A
  • Order effects occur in both conditions / directions….

*… but cancel each other out

44
Q

Explain how a researcher would implement randomisation in a repeated measures design (3) How does this control for order effects?

A
  • Mix items together in a single sequence…
  • … rather than pps taking part in one condition in its entirety then the other condition.
  • Order of items random and unpredictable/ pps switch between conditions continuously
  • Order effects occur randomly in both directions….

*… but cancel each other out

45
Q

Explain why randomisation is rarely used in research

A
  • It is rare for conditions to be divisible into small units…
  • A condition usually consists of one ‘big’ thing that happens
46
Q

Explain how a researcher would implement a matched pairs design

A
  • Matching: put all pps in order on a specified variable
  • e.g., age, aggression.
  • Pair each pp with their closest counterpart.
  • Randomly allocate from within pairs to conditions
47
Q

What is random sampling? How is a random sample chosen?

A
  • All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
  • Obtain a sampling population, i.e., a list of possible pps to select the sample from

(Ideally, this is the population, in most cases, not!)

  • Give everyone in sampling population a number
  • Use a random number generator to select N pps
48
Q

What is stratified sampling? How is a stratified sample chosen? (3)

A

Stratified sampling

  • The sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub groups (strata) within the target population
  • Population is divided into strata groups that the researcher wants represented
  • Then random sampling is used to choose pps within each strata
49
Q

What is systematic sampling? How is a systematic sample chosen? (3)

A

Systematic sampling

  • A quasi- random technique
  • Every nth member of the target population is selected
  • e.g. every third house on a street
50
Q

What is opportunity sampling? How is an opportunity sample chosen? (2)

A

Opportunity sampling

  • The researcher uses anyone who is willing and available at the time to take part
  • e.g., academic uses her students
51
Q

What is volunteer sampling? How is a volunteer sample chosen? (2)

A

Volunteer sampling

  • A volunteer sample involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample
  • e.g., by responding to an advertisement
52
Q

Explain what is meant by the terms ‘population’ (‘target population’) and ‘sample’, and how they relate to each other

A
  • Population = group that the research is about, i.e. to whom the study’s findings should apply
  • Sample = group who take part in a research investigation.
  • Sample is taken from a target population
  • It is presumed to be representative of that population.
53
Q

Explain what is meant by ‘generalisation’ and ‘bias’ in sampling, and how they relate to each other

A
  • Generalisation = extent to which the findings and conclusions can be applied to the population.
  • Sample representative of population.=> generalisable
  • Bias = when certain groups are over or under represented within the sample selected
  • Bias => lack of generalisability
54
Q

Explain the key strength of random sampling over opportunity sampling

A
  • Random sampling is free from researcher bias…

*… as the choice of pps is left to chance rather than actively done by the researcher

  • So, random sample => more likely to be representative
55
Q

Explain the key strength of opportunity sampling

A
  • Convenience
  • Using whoever is available is much easier than …

*… using special procedures to choose pps

56
Q

Explain the key strength of stratified sampling over random sampling

A
  • Stratified sample more likely to be representative / generalisable
  • The effect of random error is reduced by stratification
  • Groups represented in terms of proportionality in population
57
Q

Explain the key weakness of volunteer sampling

A
  • Volunteers may not be representative of population,
  • e.g. they might be more helpful
58
Q

Explain the key strength of systematic sampling

A

More practical than random sampling…

  • …especially when it doesn’t really matter if sampling is not done entirely randomly
  • …e.g., names from school rolls
59
Q

Experimental designs

A

Independent measure
Repeated measure
Match pairs
Quasi-experimental design

60
Q

Independent measure

A

Using different participants file each condition of the experiment.

The advantage is that there are no order effects

61
Q

Repeated measure

A

An experimental design where the same participants take part in each condition of the experiment.

Advantage- control of participant variables and fewer participants needed so less expensive.
Disadvantage- order effect and demand characteristics.

62
Q

Match pairs

A

An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age or IQ.
Advantage- experimental control to reduce error
Disadvantage- there may not be a suitable match

63
Q

MET SOC13 CORRELATION

A
64
Q

What is a correlation and how is it shown graphically?

A
  • Statistic that identifies the strength …
  • …and direction of a linear relationship between two co-variables
  • Plotted on a scattergram
65
Q

How does a correlational study differ from an experiment?

A
  • A correlation does not involve manipulation
  • There is no IV and DV but there are co-variables
66
Q

What are co-variables

A

a continuous variable that is not part of the main experimental manipulation but has an effect on the dependent variable. such as personality

67
Q

Explain the main weakness of correlational research

A
  • You cannot be sure about cause and effect
  • Variable A may have caused B to change but you cannot be sure
  • It is possible that B caused A to change or that C caused both A and B to change
68
Q

Explain why correlational studies are often used rather than experiments for ethical and practical reasons

A
  • Ethical reasons
  • Can do a correlation when it is not acceptable to manipulate variables…
  • …because it would not protect pps from harm
  • Practical reasons
  • Not possible to manipulate an IV / do an experiment
  • e.g., if pps would not follow instructions in a field experiment
69
Q

AMET SOC14 SELF REPORTS

A
70
Q

Name two self-report techniques

A
  • Questionnaires
  • Interviews
71
Q

Name two types of questions

A

Open
Closed

72
Q

Name three types of interview

A

Structured

Semi- structured

Unstructured

73
Q

Explain two key advantages of using self- reports (generally) compared to other methods

A
  • They are less time- consuming than other methods
  • Data on large number of participants can be gathered quickly compared to (e.g.) experiments
  • People are often rich, valid sources of information about their own lives.
  • This would be impossible to measure without asking them.
74
Q

Explain why self- reports may have lower validity compared to other methods

A
  • Self- reports are not actual behaviour and …
  • …what people say they do is not necessarily what they (would) do (in real life or experiments)
  • Pps may not know / remember the truth..
  • …or lie / display social desirability effects
75
Q

MET SOC 14 OPEN AND CLOSED QUESTIONS

A
76
Q

Describe open questions and the data they produce

A
  • Do not have a fixed range of answers
  • Respondents are free to answer in any way they wish
  • Produce qualitative data that is rich in depth and detail
77
Q

Describe closed questions and the data they produce

A
  • Offer a fixed number of responses
  • Can be yes/no or scale of 1-10
  • Produce numerical data which is easy to analyse
78
Q

Explain advantages of using open questions in research

A
  • They provide depth / detail and …
  • …greater diversity of responses / more meaningful information in the response
  • They avoid participant frustration associated with fixed choice responses.
  • Participants can report in their own words rather than be ‘hemmed in’ by the closed set of responses.
79
Q

Explain advantages of using closed questions in research

A
  • They yield numerical data that can be analysed statistically.
  • This allows researchers to test hypotheses
  • They should be more reliable and comparable between participants.

*Closed questions can give precise meanings to each response

80
Q

MET SOC 14 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATE

A
81
Q

Explain the difference between quantitative and qualitative data

A

Quantitative

  • Numerical data…
  • …scored / counted / measured for each participant

Qualitative

  • Non-numerical data…
  • …that is expressed in words
82
Q

Quantitative data yields numerical data that can be analysed statistically.
What does this allow researchers to do that is crucial to finding out if theories are true?

A

Test hypotheses.

83
Q

Quantitative data can be claimed to be more objective than qualitative data, because qualitative data is more open to

A

.. interpretation

84
Q

How can it be argued that qualitative data is more valid than quantitative data?

A
  • Usually have more detail than quantitative data…
  • …which is a number rather than a deep exploration.
  • More likely to measure what it is supposed to measure, i.e., have greater validity
85
Q

How can quantitative data still be valid and explore variables in detail?

A
  • Questionnaires can obtain detailed data by simply being longer…
  • …and the number can be a more valid indicator than ambiguous words.
86
Q

Ecological validity

A

a measure of how test performance predicts behaviors in real-world settings

87
Q

Temporal validity

A

a type of external validity that refers to the validity of the findings in relation to the progression of time. For example, do the findings of conformity research (e.g. Asch, 1951) still apply today?

88
Q

Population validity

A

whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people

89
Q

Internal validity

A

the degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors or variables.

90
Q

External validity

A

refers to the extent to which results from a study can be applied (generalised) to other situations, groups or events.

Psychology (8 decks)

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