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Memory (MEM) Flashcards

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1
Q

Multi store model memory

A

a psychological theory that was first proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It proposes that there are three distinct memory stores in the brain: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

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2
Q

The three components of the multi store model of memory

A

Sensory register
Short term memory
Long term memory

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3
Q

Identify two sub stores within the sensory register and the type of info each processes

A

ICONIC: visual
ECHOIC: auditory

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4
Q

Identify the process which determines whether information passes from the sensory register to short term memory

A

Attention

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5
Q

Identify the process which determines whether information passes from short term memory to long term memory

A

Rehearsal

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6
Q

What claims does the multi- store model make about the types of coding in short- term and long- term memory?

A
  • STM: coding is acoustic
  • i.e., in terms of sound
  • LTM: coding is semantic
  • i.e., in terms of meaning
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7
Q

Explain the procedure and result of the ‘whole report’ condition of Sperling’s experiment on sensory memory

A
  • 3 rows of 4 letters
  • Flashed for 0.1 seconds
  • Pps recalled as many as possible
  • Recall = 4-5 items
  • 3 rows of 4 letters
  • Flashed for 0.1 seconds
  • Pps recalled as many as possible
  • Recall = 4-5 items
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8
Q

Explain the procedure and result of the ‘partial report’ condition of Sperling’s experiment on sensory memory

A
  • 3 rows of 4 letters
  • Flashed for 0.1 seconds
  • Pps cued by a tone to recall a specific row
  • Recall = 3-4 items
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9
Q

Explain what this shows about the (a) duration and (b) capacity of sensory memory, and why

A

(a) Duration is very brief as information fades before it can be recalled

(b) Capacity is larger than can be measured in the time it takes to answer

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10
Q

Explain why these conclusions can be drawn from Sperling’s results

A
  • In the ‘partial report’ condition, 3-4 items can be recalled from any row…
  • …so all rows must be in sensory memory for a brief time
  • But they fade too quickly to all be recalled in the ‘whole report’ condition
  • … i.e., by the time 4-5 items are recalled
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11
Q

Using an example to illustrate, identify which types of errors people typically make when recalling from iconic memory (2)

Explain what this shows about coding in sensory memory

A
  • Visual errors, i.e., things that visually resemble each other
  • e.g. recalling an ‘O’ rather than a ‘Q’
  • Shows that coding in sensory memory is ‘modality specific’
  • i.e., coding occurs so quickly that the information remains in its original sensory form
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12
Q

Explain one strength and one limitation of Sperling’s study of sensory memory

A

Strength

  • Powerful procedure for identifying capacity of sensory memory
  • i.e., the use of separate tests of different lines of letters to estimate total capacity

Limitation

  • Ecological validity: generalisability to other stimuli
  • Letters are artificial stimuli: capacity may be different for more realistic / common stimuli
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13
Q

What was Miller’s estimate of the capacity of short- term memory?

A
  • 7±2 items
  • i.e., most people between 5 and 9 items
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14
Q

Explain what evidence Miller based this claim on

A
  • Review of digit span experiments …
  • …and observations of everyday life

(7 days of week, deadly sins, etc)

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15
Q

Explain how the capacity of short- term memory can be extended

A
  • By ‘chunking’ information…
  • … into meaningful groupings of information
  • By ‘chunking’ information…
  • … into meaningful groupings of information
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16
Q

Identify at least one alternative claim about the capacity of short- term memory

A
  • Cowan: 4±1 items
  • Based on tests of unexpected recall

AND / OR

  • Time based (working memory model)
  • Information that can pronounced in ones head in 2-2.5 seconds
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17
Q

Explain why it is not possible to draw conclusions about the capacity of long- term memory

A
  • Potential capacity is unlimited
  • Research unable to demonstrate a finite capacity
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18
Q

Evaluate studies of the capacity of STM in terms of one strength and one limitation

A

Strength

  • Tight control over extraneous variables
  • Can identify capacity precisely

Limitation

  • Ecological validity weak: artificial stimuli
  • Results do not necessarily generalise to realistic stimuli, e.g., sentences
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19
Q

Explain the procedure of the Peterson’s experiment on the duration of short- term memory (STM)

A
  • Trigrams shown to pp
  • Pp counts backwards in 3s from 100
  • Tested at one interval of 3 seconds during countdown
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20
Q

What did the Peterson’s claim about the duration of STM from this experiment?

A
  • It was ≈ 18 seconds
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21
Q

Explain the procedure of Bahrick’s study of the duration of long term memory (LTM)

A
  • Ex- high school pupils…
  • … tested after 15 and 48 years on recall of class mates
  • Tested by free recall …
  • …or cued recall / recognition from photos
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22
Q

Outline the main results of Bahrick’s study of the duration of LTM

A
  • Free recall: 60% after 15 years …
  • …and 30% after 48 years
  • Recognition: 90% after 15 years…
  • …and 70% after 48 years
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23
Q

Explain what conclusions can be drawn from Bahrick’s study of the duration of LTM

A
  • Long- term memories can remain stored for a very long time
  • Cues increase recall from LTM
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24
Q

What claims does the multi- store model make about the types of coding in short- term and long- term memory?

A
  • STM: coding is acoustic
  • i.e., in terms of sound
  • LTM: coding is semantic
  • i.e., in terms of meaning
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25
Q

Explain the procedure of Baddeley’s (1966) studies of coding in short term and long term memory

A
  • Participants tested on short or long term recall from word lists, which were:
  • Acoustically similar, e.g., cat + can
  • Acoustically dissimilar, e.g., pit + few
  • Semantically similar, e.g., large + big
  • Semantically dissimilar, e.g., good + hot
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26
Q

Explain what Baddeley’s (1966) results showed about coding in short term memory

A
  • When tested from STM, participants made more errors on the acoustically similar words
  • Words that sounded similar interfered with each other
  • Shows that they had coded words in STM acoustically
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27
Q

Explain what Baddeley’s (1966) results showed about coding in long term memory

A
  • When tested from LTM, participants made more errors on the semantically similar words
  • Words with similar meanings interfered with each other
  • Shows that they had coded words in LTM semantically,
28
Q

Explain what the case study of KF shows about coding in short term memory

A
  • STM poor when words read to him…
  • … but better when he read them himself
  • Shows there are separate components in STM
  • i.e., for processing acoustic and visual information
29
Q

Identify who found evidence to support the following claims made by the multi- store model:

  • The capacity of STM is 7(+or-2) items
  • The duration of STM is 18-30 seconds
  • The duration of LTM is potentially a life- time
  • Coding in STM is acoustic
  • Coding in LTM is semantic
A
  • The capacity of STM is 7(+or-2) items: Miller and Jacobs
  • The duration of STM is 18-30 seconds: Peterson & Peterson
  • The duration of LTM is potentially a life- time: Bahrick
  • Coding in STM is acoustic: Baddeley (1966)
  • Coding in LTM is semantic: Baddeley (1966)
30
Q

Explain how Glazer & Cunitz’s study of the primacy- recency effect has shown that short and long term memory are distinct components, as the multi- store model claims

A
  • pps recall more items from the beginning and end of the sequence​ of digits
  • Items from beginning of list have been rehearsed and stored in LTM​
  • Items from end of list are still in STM​

(* Suggests that STM and LTM are distinct components of memory)

31
Q

Explain how case studies of HM and/or Clive Wearing have shown that short and long term memory are distinct components, as the multi- store model claims

A
  • HM and Clive Wearing both had intact STM…
  • … but transfer of information to LTM was impaired
  • Selective impairment implies distinct components

(So, STM and LTM are distinct components of memory)

32
Q

External validity

A

is the extent to which the results are valid outside of the research. It is the extent to which research findings can be generalised beyond the experiment.

33
Q

ecological validity

A

This is the extent to which the results can be generalised beyond the setting of the experiment to real life.

34
Q

population validity

A

which refers to the extent to which we can generalise from the sample in the experiment to the wider population.

35
Q

Central Executive

A

Capacity = Limited Storage
Coding = Any type of information
Duration = N/A
The central executive is an attentional process that monitors incoming data and decides what needs to be done and when and delegates tasks according to the slave systems, it can code any type of information.
The central executive keeps an eye on what is happening in the slave systems and takes over the most demanding task where necessary. Any task that is new/requires concentration (attention) will overload the CE as it has a very limited capacity.

36
Q

Phonological Loop (Slave One)

A

Capacity = Limited (2 seconds worth of what you can say)
Coding = Acustically
Duration = 2 seconds
Auditory information is passed from the CE to the phonological loop.
Baddeley further subdivided the PL into 2 parts;
The phonological stores - which stores the words we hear, like an inner ear.
The articulacy loop - silently repeats/rehearses words that are seen or heard, to keep them in memory, like an inner voice (maintenance rehearsal)

37
Q

The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (Slave Two)

A

Capacity = Limited (3/4 objeccts)
Coding = Visually
Duration = N/A
Visual information is passed from the CE to the VSS, like an inner eye.
It is responsible for setting up mental images and is what you use if you have to plan a spatial task e.g. giving direction.
It temporarily stores visual (what things look like) and spatial (the physical relationship between things) information.

38
Q

The Episodic Buffer (Slave Three)

A

Capacity = Limited (about 4 chunks)
Coding = Any type of information
Duration = N/A
This is a general store, later added by Baddeley and Hitch in 2000. The EB collects and combines information from the CE, PL and VSS to record an event (episode). The EB transfers information to the LTM and is used to retrieve information from the LTM to the STM.
Track progress

39
Q

Working memory model

A

a type of short-term memory that stores information temporarily during the completion of cognitive tasks, such as comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, and learning.

40
Q

Explain how the findings of Baddeley’s dual task experiment support the WMM

A
  • When doing two visual tasks simultaneously: poor performance
  • When doing one visual and one auditory task simultaneously: better performance
  • Suggests that there are separate processors in STM, i.e., the PL and the VSS
41
Q

Explain how findings from the case study of KF support the WMM

A
  • When recalling words from STM that he had only heard: poor performance
  • When recalling words that he had read to himself: better performance
  • Suggests that the latter involves both VSS and PL while former only involves VSS…
  • …and that these are separate processors in STM
42
Q

The working memory model is supported by both experimental evidence (e.g., Baddeley’s dual task experiment) and case study evidence (e.g., KF).

Which term describes this situation where a theory is supported by more than one type of evidence?

A
  • Triangulation- more valid and accurate information comes from triangulation evidence
43
Q

Explain criticisms of the concept of the central executive (2)

A

*CE is the ‘most important but least understood’ component

  • CE may have sub- components

*Case study of EVR: Elsinger & Damasio (1985)

*Brain tumour removed

*Could perform reasoning tasks but had poor decision making

*Suggests reasoning and decision- making are separate functions of the CE and are in different parts of brain

*So, the CE has sub- components

44
Q

Explain why the working memory is a better theory of short term memory than the multi- store model

A
  • MSM is too simplistic account of STM
  • WMM does justice to complexity of information processing
45
Q

Explain how the case study of brain damaged patient KF provides evidence against the claim, made by the multi- store model, that short term memory is a unitary store

A
  • STM poor when words read to him…
  • … but better when he read them himself
  • Suggests that there are separate processing components in STM
  • i.e., acoustic and visual
    (* So, STM is not unitary)
46
Q

Explain how the case study of HM provides evidence against the claim, made by the multi- store model, that long term memory is a unitary store

A
  • Acquired a new skill (mirror drawing)…
  • … but could not recall learning it
  • Suggests there are separate components within LTM
  • i.e., procedural and episodic memory
    (* So, LTM is not unitary)
  • Acquired a new skill (mirror drawing)…
  • … but could not recall learning it
  • Suggests there are separate components within LTM
  • i.e., procedural and episodic memory
    (* So, LTM is not unitary)
47
Q

Who is HM

A

Had his hippocampus removed to try and cure his epileptic seizures.
He could no longer form or keep new memories

48
Q

Who is KF

A

Suffered brain damage as a result of a motorcycle accident
His impairment was mainly for verbal information his memory for visual information was largely unaffected. This shows that there separate STM components for visual information and verbal information.

49
Q

Explain what is meant by episodic long- term memory

A
  • LTMs of events/experiences in our lives
  • Likened to a diary / time-stamped
  • Have to be consciously recalled.
50
Q

Explain what is meant by semantic long- term memory

A
  • LTMs of our knowledge of the world
  • Combination of a dictionary (meaning)…
  • …and an encyclopaedia.(factual knowledge)
51
Q

Explain what is meant by procedural long- term memory

A
  • LTMs of skilled behaviours such as driving a car.
  • Not necessarily consciously accessed
  • Trying to explain them may make task more difficult.
52
Q

Explain what evidence from the case study of HM shows about the distinction between procedural and episodic memory

A
  • Learnt to trace a shape using mirror image
  • Acquired a skill (procedural) …
  • …but could not recall acquiring the skill (episodic)
  • Shows that these are stored separately in LTM
53
Q

Explain what evidence from the case study of HM shows about the distinction between semantic and episodic memory

A
  • HM retained knowledge of dogs
  • …but could not recall having had or petted a dog
  • Had semantic memories, but not episodic
  • Shows that these are stored separately in LTM
53
Q

Explain proactive interference, using the example of a teacher learning students’ names to illustrate

A
  • Old memories disrupt recall of new memories
  • Works forward in time
  • e.g., teacher cannot recall new students’ names because he has so taught so many in the past
54
Q

Explain retroactive interference, using the example of a teacher learning students’ names to illustrate

A
  • New memories disrupt recall of old memories
  • Works backward in time
  • e.g., teacher cannot recall old students’ names because new students’ names interfere with his recall
55
Q

Explain the procedure of McGeoch & McDonald’s experiment on recall of different types of words, and how the results support interference theory

A
  • PPs earned a list of words perfectly
  • They then learned another list of words (see results)
  • When recalling first list, recall was, from worse to best:

Synonyms < antonyms < unrelated words < nonsense syllables < 3 digit numbers < control

  • Similarity in the memory => less recall
  • More different / distinctive material => more recall
  • Demonstrates retroactive interference
56
Q

Explain the procedure of Baddeley & Hitch’s experiment using rugby players, and how the results support interference theory

A
  • Natural experiment, asking rugby players to identify a team they played in a past game
  • IV was number of rugby games played since the one being asked about
  • Recall not affected by time passed, more by how many games since the one being asked about
  • Demonstrates retroactive interference
57
Q

Explain the procedure of Tulving & Psotka’s experiment and how the results show a limitation of interference theory

A
  • Pps learned a series of lists of words (in unnamed categories) then were tested immediately on each list
  • Recall was 70% for first list, but fell on each successive list due to interference from previous lists
  • However, when retested with the category headings as cues, recall rose to 70%
  • Suggests that what appeared to be interference was really retrieval failure: words were available but not accessible
58
Q

Using examples, explain what is involved in context and state dependent cues (4)

Track progress

2 / 5

A
  • External cues from the environment
  • e.g., classroom in which you learned and were tested

State

  • Internal cues from emotional / physiological state
  • e.g., sadness, excitement
59
Q

Explain how Godden & Baddeley’s experiment using divers supports retrieval failure theory

A
  • Divers learned and recalled word list…
  • … underwater or on land
  • Higher recall when learning and recall in same location
  • Supports context dependent forgetting
60
Q

Explain how Carter & Cassady’s study using antihistamines supports retrieval failure theory

A
  • Participants learned and recalled word list / prose…
  • …after being given antihistamine or not
  • Higher recall when learning and recall state matched
  • Supports state dependent forgetting
61
Q

Explain one circumstance when cues are less effective in enhancing recall. Use example(s) to illustrate your answer.

A
  • When the context is not distinct
  • i.e., from other contexts
  • Underwater is very distinct, so cues specific memories
  • Classrooms are not usually very distinct, so don’t cue specific memories
62
Q

Identify 2 types of misleading information and explain how misleading information can affect eyewitness memory

A
  • Leading questions
  • Post- event discussion
  • New, misleading information from questioning or discussion retroactively interferes with original recall
  • When information fades / decays …
  • …people reconstruct memories from combination of original memories and other (misleading) information
63
Q

Explain what Loftus & Palmer’s (1974) experiment, involving recall of events in a video, showed about the influence of leading questions

A
  • PPs watched videos, including one involving cars
  • Asked ‘About how fast were the cars going when they ………. each other?’ (verbs below)
  • Estimates from slowest to highest speed:
  • Contacted < Bumped < Hit < Collided < Smashed
  • Shows leading question can influence response
64
Q

Explain what the follow up to this experiment, testing recall of other events in the video, showed

A

*Pps returned a week later

  • Asked if they had seen (non- existent) broken glass
  • Pps who heard ‘smash’ week before more likely to say ‘yes’
  • Shows a genuine effect on memory, not just response bias due to compliance
65
Q

Explain what Gabbert’s experiment, using videos of crimes, showed about the influence of post- event discussion

A
  • Pps watched videos of crime from different angles…

*…then discussed what they saw

  • 71% of pps recalled aspects of the crime that they did not actually see
  • Shows pps incorporated aspects of what they had been told into their memories
  • Shows strong influence of post- event discussion on eyewitness recall
66
Q

Identify the real- world implications of findings on the influence of misleading information on eyewitness memory

A
  • Miscarriages of justice could occur due to police questioning and discussion affecting recall
  • Witnesses confidence will be largely unaffected
  • Matters because jurors are especially impressed by eyewitness evidence, especially if they are confident

Psychology (8 decks)

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