Research Methods Key Terms

Question 1

Experimental Method

Answer 1

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi

Question 2

Aim

Answer 2

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate. In other words: the purpose of the study

Question 3

Hypothesis

Answer 3

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be tested. Stated at the beginning of the study

Question 4

Directional Hypothesis

Answer 4

States the direction of the difference or relationship

Question 5

Variables

Answer 5

Any “thing” that can vary or change during an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes occur in one thing result In changes to another

Question 6

Independent Variable (IV)

Answer 6

Some aspects of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher, or changes naturally- so the effect on the DV can be measured

Question 7

Dependent Variable (DV)

Answer 7

The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV

Question 8

Operationalization

Answer 8

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Question 9

Extraneous Variable (EV)

Answer 9

Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV, if it is not controlled. EV’s are nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV

Question 10

Confounding Variable

Answer 10

Any variable, other than the IV, that may have effected the DV, so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. Confounding variables vary systematically with the IV

Question 11

Demand Characteristics

Answer 11

Any cue from the researcher or the research situation that may be interpreted by the participant as revelling the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation

Question 12

Investigator Effects

Answer 12

Any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process

Question 13

Randomisation

Answer 13

The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions

Question 14

Standardisation

Answer 14

Using exactly the some formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

Question 15

Experimental Design

Answer 15

The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

Question 16

Independent Groups Design

Answer 16

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one condition

Question 17

Repeated Measures

Answer 17

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

Question 18

Matched Pairs Design

Answer 18

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable that may affect the DV. Then one member of each pair is assigned to condition A, and the other to condition B

Question 19

Random Allocation

Answer 19

An attempt to control participant variables in an independent groups design, which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other

Question 20

Counterbalancing

Answer 20

An attempt to control the effects of order in a repeated measure design, half the participants experience the conditions in one order, the other half in the opposite order. AKA ABBA

Question 21

Laboratory Experiment

Answer 21

An experiment that takes place in an controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables

Question 22

Field Experiment

Answer 22

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects of the DV

Question 23

Natural Experiment

Answer 23

An experiment where the change on the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV

Question 24

Quasi-Experiment

Answer 24

A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone, the variables simply exist, such as age

Question 25

Population

Answer 25

A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn

Question 26

Sample

Answer 26

A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from the population and is presumed to be representative of that population

Question 27

Sampling Techniques

Answer 27

The method used to select people from the population

Question 28

Bias

Answer 28

In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisation can be made to the target population

Question 29

Generalisation

Answer 29

The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population

Question 30

Ethical Issues

Answer 30

These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile results

Question 31

BPS Code of Ethics

Answer 31

A quasi legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around 4 major principals, respect, competence, responsibility and integrity

Question 32

Pilot Study

Answer 32

A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check procedures ,materials ,measuring scales etc. work and to allow the researcher to make changes if necessary

Question 33

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 33

Watching and recording behaviour in a setting within which it would normally occur

Question 34

Controlled Observation

Answer 34

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment

Question 35

Covert Observation

Answer 35

Participant's behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

Question 36

Overt Observation

Answer 36

Participant's behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

Question 37

Participant Observation

Answer 37

The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

Question 38

Non-Participant Observation

Answer 38

The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

Question 39

Behavioural Categories

Answer 39

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

Question 40

Event Sampling

Answer 40

A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

Question 41

Time Sampling

Answer 41

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame

Question 42

Self Report Techniques

Answer 42

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own findings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic

Question 43

Questionnaire

Answer 43

A set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts and/or experiences

Question 44

Interview

Answer 44

A live encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set or may develop as the interview goes along

Question 45

Open Question

Answer 45

Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish

Question 46

Closed Question

Answer 46

Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter

Question 47

Correlation

Answer 47

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables

Question 48

Co-Variables

Answer 48

The variables investigated within a correlation. They are not called IV and DV because a correlation investigates the association between the two variables, rather than trying to show cause and effect

Question 49

Positive Correlation

Answer 49

As one co-variable increases, so does the other

Question 50

Negative Correlation

Answer 50

As one co-variable increases, the other decreases

Question 51

Zero Correlation

Answer 51

There is no relationship between the co-variables

Question 52

Qualitative Data

Answer 52

Data that is expressed in words and is non-numerical

Question 53

Quantitative Data

Answer 53

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers

Question 54

Primary Data

Answer 54

Information that has be obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research study. This data can be gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation

Question 55

Secondary Data

Answer 55

Information that has already been collected by someone else and pre-dates the current research project. The data might include the work of others or government statistics

Question 56

Meta-Analysis

Answer 56

"Research about Research", the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view

Question 57

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 57

The use of graphs,tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data

Question 58

Measures of Central Tendency

Answer 58

The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data

Question 59

Mean

Answer 59

The average calculated by adding up all the values and dividing by the number of values there are

Question 60

Median

Answer 60

The central value in a set of data when they are arranged from lowest to highest

Question 61

Mode

Answer 61

The most frequently occurring value in a set of data

Question 62

Measures of dispersion

Answer 62

The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores

Question 63

Range

Answer 63

A simple calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding one as a mathematical correction

Question 64

Standard Deviation

Answer 64

A measure of dispersion in a set of scores. It tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores. This is the variance. The standard variation is the square root of this

Question 65

Scattergraph

Answer 65

A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables in a correlation analysis

Question 66

Bar Chart

Answer 66

A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars

Question 67

Normal Distribution

Answer 67

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern. The mode,median and mean are located at the highest peak

Question 68

Skewed Distribution

Answer 68

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end

Question 69

Positive Skew

Answer 69

A type of distribution in which the long tail on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is located on the left

Question 70

Negative Skew

Answer 70

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the left side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right

Question 71

Statistical Testing

Answer 71

Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected, they tell us the relationships between the variables are statically significant or have occurred by chance

Question 72

Sign Test

Answer 72

A statical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items

Question 73

Peer Review

Answer 73

The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of a high quality

Question 74

Economy

Answer 74

The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services

Question 75

Situational Variable

Answer 75

A variable that is related to external circumstances rather than the personalities of those involved

Question 76

Research Methods

Answer 76

The process by which information or data is collected usually for the purpose of testing a hypothesis and/or a theory

Question 77

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 77

A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables

Question 78

Case Studies

Answer 78

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event

Question 79

Content Analysis

Answer 79

A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, for example, in texts, emails, TV, film and other media

Question 80

Coding

Answer 80

The stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories, for example, words ,sentences, phrases etc

Question 81

Thematic Analysis

Answer 81

An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded

Question 82

Reliability

Answer 82

Refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are. It is reliable if it produces consistent results every time

Question 83

Test-Retest Reliability

Answer 83

A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or a psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions. This shows to what extent the test produces the same answers

Question 84

Inter-Observer Reliability

Answer 84

The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation of a behaviour

Question 85

Validity

Answer 85

The extent to which an observed effect is genuine. Does it measure what it was supposed to measure, can it be generalised to beyond the experimental conditions

Question 86

Face Validity

Answer 86

A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is meant to measure, e.g.: does an anxiety test look like it measures anxiety

Question 87

Concurrent Validity

Answer 87

The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure

Question 88

Ecological Validity

Answer 88

The extent to which findings from research can be generalised to other settings or situations

Question 89

Temporal Validity

Answer 89

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras

Question 90

Statistical Test

Answer 90

Used in psychology to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists

Question 91

Levels of Measurement

Answer 91

Quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement, such as nominal, ordinal or interval

Question 92

Chi-Squared

Answer 92

A test for an associated between two variables or conditions. Data should be nominal level used an independent design

Question 93

Mann-Whitney

Answer 93

A test for an significant difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using an repeated measures design

Question 94

Wilcoxon

Answer 94

A test for significant difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using a repeated measures or matched pairs design

Question 95

Spearman's Rho

Answer 95

A test for correlation when data is at least ordinal level

Question 96

Person's R

Answer 96

A parametric test for correlation when data is at interval level

Question 97

Related t Test

Answer 97

A parametric test for difference between two sets of scores. Data must be interval with a related design

Question 98

Unrelated t Test

Answer 98

A parametric test for difference between two sets of scores. Data must be internal with an unrelated design

Question 99

Probability

Answer 99

A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 indicates statistical certainty

Question 100

Significance

Answer 100

A statistical terms that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A "significant" result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis

Question 101

Critical Value

Answer 101

When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut off point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis

Question 102

Type 1 Error

Answer 102

The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a false positive)

Question 103

Type 2 Error

Answer 103

The failure to reject a false null hypothesis (a false negative)

Question 104

Abstract

Answer 104

The key details of the research report

Question 105

Introduction

Answer 105

A look at past research (theories and/or studies) on a similar topic. This section includes the aim and hypothesis

Question 106

Method

Answer 106

A description of what the researcher did, including design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics

Question 107

Results

Answer 107

A description of what the researcher found, including descriptive and inferential statistics

Question 108

Discussion

Answer 108

A consideration of what the results of a research study tells us in terms of psychological theory

Question 109

References

Answer 109

A list of sources that are referred to or quoted in the article

Question 110

Paradigm

Answer 110

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

Question 111

Paradigm Shift

Answer 111

The result of a scientific revolution. A significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline

Question 112

Objectivity

Answer 112

When all sources of personal bias are minimized so as not to distort or influence the research process

Question 113

The Empirical Method

Answer 113

Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience

Question 114

Reliability

Answer 114

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

Question 115

Falsilfiability

Answer 115

The principal that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the probability of being proved false