Research methods in context

Question 1

What are interpretivists and what do they believe

Answer 1

Interpretivist sociologists believe that society and humans cannot be studied in the same way as the natural world.

Humans are complex and have meanings behind their actions; therefore, sociologists must study these meanings to understand people and society.

Interpretivist sociologists prefer qualitative research methods that produce detailed accounts e.g. unstructured interviews and case studies.

Question 2

What are positivists and what do they believe

Answer 2

Positivist sociologists believe that sociology is a science and that society can be studied using scientific methods in the same way the natural world can be studied.

They believe that there are objective laws of society, which they aim to uncover using scientific research methods.

The focus of positivist researchers is on behaviour that can be observed and measured; they don’t care about internal feelings or processes.

Positivist sociologists prefer quantitative research methods that produce objective data e.g. experiments and questionnaires.

Question 3

What is qualitative data

Answer 3

Qualitative data is used to study cultures, norms and social relationships.

Qualitative data involves non-numerical data to interpret and analyse people’s experiences and actions e.g. interviews, direct observation, and participant observation.

Qualitative data also helps to provide in-depth insights into problems

Question 4

What is quantitative data

Answer 4

Quantitative data involves communicating data statistically or numerically.

Quantitative data is collected through surveys, experiments, or statistical records.

This allows sociologists to analyse patterns, trends, and relationships using statistical methods.

And it is also used to understand correlations in social situations.

Question 5

How can practical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g time (practical)

Answer 5

Some research methods take more time than others e.g participant observation will require more time than written questionnaires as more detailed data is being recorded.

Research methods that take more time leads to a smaller research sample size as it will be too time consuming for it to be on a large scale.

Question 6

How can practical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g money (practical)

Answer 6

The money available to allow the research to happen affects the number of researchers, respondents and amount of research time.

Equipment, travel and people’s time are often not cheap

Question 7

How can practical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g access (practical)

Answer 7

Some groups of respondents and location are easier to access than others e.g to do research in school permission is required.

Question 8

How can ethical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g informed consent (ethical)

Answer 8

Researchers should have the consent of the people that they are researching because of the effects that the research may have on them e.g psychological and emotional affects.

Question 9

How can ethical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g confidentiality (ethical)

Answer 9

The people who are having the research done on them have a right to remain anonymous, so they should not be identifiable when the research is published e.g. by them not remaining anonymous it could impact on how truthful their answers are.

Question 10

How can ethical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g psychological harm (ethical)

Answer 10

Some research groups are more vulnerable to psychological harm than others (eg. children, those with mental health issues and those who are disabled/learning difficulties.

Question 11

How can theoretical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g reliability (theoretical)

Answer 11

In order for a research method to be reliable, it has to be repeated and have achieve similar results.

Positivists favour research methods that are reliable such as questionnaires and structured interviews as these types of methods can be repeated by any researcher as it is structured/controlled.

Question 12

How can theoretical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g representativeness (theoretical)

Answer 12

In order for a research method to be representative the group that is being studied has to have similar characteristics to those of the wider population.

Positivists value representativeness as they want to find general patterns and make cause and effect statements about social behaviour

e.g if this thing happens it leads to this.

Question 13

How can theoretical issues affect the choosing of a research method: e.g validity (theoretical)

Answer 13

Validity means how true the data is.

Interpretivists see the need to use research methods that have high validity such as unstructured interviews and participant observations because they reveal the real meanings in which people have.

Question 14

What is an experiment mean in sociology

Answer 14

An experiment is when there is a high degree of control that the researcher has over a situation.

In an experiment, the researcher sees and controls all variables that might affect the outcome.

By manipulating these variables and watching what happens, the researcher can see the cause and effect of something.

There are two main types of experiments which are laboratory experiments and field experiments.

Question 15

What are laboratory experiments:

Answer 15

Laboratory experiments are favoured by positivists as hypothesises are made in a controlled environment

e.g. The researcher changes the independent variable and measures how the impact on the dependent variable making it reliable and repeatable.

Independent variable -thing that changes

Dependent variable - thing that stays the same

Question 16

Advantages of laboratory experiments e.g. reliability (theoretical)

Answer 16

Highly reliable- the original experiment can specify precisely what steps were followed in the original experiments - means that it can be repeated easily and is accessible to all.

This makes the data more likely to be reliable and repeatable.

Question 17

Disadvantages of laboratory experiments e.g. artificiality (theoretical)

Answer 17

Lab experiments are carried out in an artificial environment and may not reveal how people act in the real world (any behaviour in these conditions may be artificial)

Question 18

Disadvantages of laboratory experiments e.g. The Hawthorne effect (theoretical)

Answer 18

A lab is not a natural environment If people know they are being studied, they may act differently making the experiment less reliable.

Question 19

Disadvantages of laboratory experiments e.g. ethical issues

(ethical)

Answer 19

The researcher needs the consent of the participating in the research

• This may be difficult to get e.g schools

Question 20

Disadvantages of laboratory experiments e.g. unrepresentativeness (theoretical)

Answer 20

The small-scale nature of lab experiments reduces their representativeness

The experiment might only target a specific group/gender

Question 21

Disadvantages of laboratory experiment e.g. controlling all factors (theoretical)

Answer 21

It would be hard to control all the variables that might have an influence on certain social issues

(e.g. a child’s education)

Question 22

What are field experiments

Answer 22

Field experiments happen in social world where the sociologist either creates a situation or adapts a real-lite situation to their research purpose.

Those involved are usually unaware of the research taking place.

Question 23

Advantages of field experiments e.g. less artificiality (theoretical)

Answer 23

Field experiments are set in real-world situations meaning that sociologists can see how people really act and

There’s no need to act different - No Hawthorne effect

Question 24

Advantages of field experiments e.g. validity (theoretical)

Answer 24

As people are unaware of there is an experiment going on there’s no Hawthorne effect and as they are in their usual social environment, they are more likely to act normally.

Question 25

Disadvantages of field experiments e.g. ethical issues (ethical)

Answer 25

Field experiments involves carrying out an experiment on people without their consent in order for people to change their behaviour as they are being watched

This can be dangerous and unethical.

Question 26

Disadvantages of field experiments e.g. less control over variables (theoretical)

Answer 26

The results are less likely to be reliable if they are elements that can’t be controlled

Question 27

Disadvantages of field experiments e.g. limited application (theoretical)

Answer 27

Field experiments can only be applied to a limited number of social situations.

Question 28

What are Questionnaires

Answer 28

Written or self completed questionnaires are a form of social survey and can be distributed in a range of ways e.g post email or handed out in person.

Questionnaires are typically a list of pre-set questions that are closed ended questions with pre-coded answers.

This research method is favoured by positivists because of how structured an controlled it is

Question 29

Advantages of questionnaires e.g. cheap and quick (practical)

Answer 29

Questionnaires are cheap and quick.

Can get more done for less money.

Question 30

Advantages of questionnaires e.g. quantifiable data (theoretical)

Answer 30

By questionnaires being able to be turned into quantifiable data (expressed into a number) easily it makes it easy to spot patterns and trends

Question 31

Advantages of questionnaires e.g. representativeness (theoretical)

Answer 31

By questionnaires being able to be representative it means that the questions can reach a large demographic of people

Question 32

Advantages of questionnaires e.g. reliability (theoretical)

Answer 32

By questionnaires being reliable it means that they can be easily repeated due to how the questions are pre-set.

Question 33

Advantages of questionnaires e.g. limited ethical issues (ethical)

Answer 33

Because the person who is participating in the questionnaire isn’t obligated to answer the questions it means that there are limited ethical issues (there is no coercion)

Question 34

Disadvantages of questionnaires e.g. response rate (theoretical)

Answer 34

Especially with postal questionnaires there is a very low response rate
which may stop the evidence from being valid as there might only be a certain demographic of people answering which doesn’t reflect the wider population.

Question 35

Disadvantages of questionnaires e.g. low validity (theoretical)

Answer 35

Because questionnaires don’t have to be done in person people may be more willing to lie which reduces the validity.

Question 36

Disadvantages of questionnaires e.g. unrepresentative (theoretical)

Answer 36

With questionnaires it will be more likely to get a certain group of people e.g. unemployed or elderly that answer the questionnaire as many other people might be too busy so it won’t be representative of the wider population.

Question 37

Disadvantages of questionnaires e.g. understanding (practical)

Answer 37

As the interviewer isn’t there to ask follow-up questions and explain questions to the participants if the respondents don’t understand the question they are less likely to respond (less people participating).

W/C are less likely to understand the question compared to M/C

Question 38

What are interviews in sociology

Answer 38

Interviews are a conversation between the researcher and the participant which allows the researcher understand what causes certain social behaviours.

There are 3 types of interviews which are structured interviews, unstructured interviews and semi-structured interviews.

Structured interviews are favoured by positivists because they are rich in reliability and representativity

Unstructured interviews are favoured by interpretivists because they are rich in validity.

Sociologists sometimes use semi-structured interviews to combine the elements of both of structured and unstructured interviews. (most useful)

Question 39

What are structured interviews

Answer 39

A structured interview involves asking the same questions in the same way to different people.

The interviewer uses a pre-written questionnaire or interview questions schedule to help the flow of the interview.

The purpose of a structured interview is to collect data on a specific topic e.g. social class, gender, ethnicity.

Question 40

Advantages of structured interviews e.g. representativeness (theoretical)

Answer 40

Because of how the questions are structured and how they are all the same it means that it can reach a geographically wide research sample - increases the validity of the research/data

Question 41

Advantages of structured interviews e.g. quantifiable data (theoretical)

Answer 41

Because with structured interviews the questions are closed ended it means that results can be easily quantifiable (expressed as a number)

Question 42

Advantages of structured interviews e.g. cheap and easy (practical)

Answer 42

As the interview is structured
and the interview questions will already be prepped it means that training interviewers is easy and cheap. As well as this, it will also be cheap and easy to watch over.

By this it means that they can do more and increase their sample size.

Question 43

Advantages of structured interviews e.g. reliability (theoretical)

Answer 43

Because the interview is structured it means that it can be reproduced again as everything is the same and the questions can be repeated to multiple people increasing the reliability.

​

Question 44

What are unstructured interviews

Answer 44

Unstructured interviews relies on asking participants questions to collect data on a topic.

This is a method that is used by interpretivists that happens through informal conversation and produces qualitative data.

Unstructured interviews don’t have a set pattern and questions are not arranged in advance.

Unstructured interviews are a micro approach which means that they look at small-scale interactions between individuals.

Question 45

Advantages of unstructured interviews e.g. rapport (ethical)

Answer 45

Because of how informal the conservation is this allows the interviewer to develop a relationship with the interviewee and therefore get them to trust them.

Question 46

Advantages of unstructured interviews e.g. flexibility (practical)

Answer 46

Because the interview is unstructured it means that the interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions. Because of this it means that the interview can ask follow up questions as well as when the interviewee says something of interest to the interviewer, the interviewer can continue exploring that

Question 47

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews e.g. time (practical)

Answer 47

Unstructured interviews are time consuming, due to how unstructured interviews take longer as there is no fixed format.

Question 48

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews e.g. expense (practical)

Answer 48

As well as this unstructured interviews are also expensive due to training interviewers have to do in sensitivity and building a rapport with the participant which can take time.

Question 49

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews e.g. unrepresentative (theoretical)

Answer 49

Because of smaller research samples the data that is collected obtained is not representative of the wider population

Question 50

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews e.g. not reliable (theoretical)

Answer 50

Because of how the questions are open, they cannot be easily repeated by another researcher meaning that they cannot be repeated decreasing that reliability of the research.

As well as this, because the respondent can respond ability to respond in the way they want to makes it hard to clarify their response.

Question 51

What are semi-structured interviews

Answer 51

Interviews in which interviewers are have a list of questions that they ask but are also free to ask further, questions based on the responses given.

This allows more flexibility that the structured interviews and more structure than unstructured interviews.

Question 52

Advantages of semi-structured interviews (theoretical)

Answer 52

Large amount of detail generated as the interviewer can ask follow up questions.

Fairly flexible as there aren’t too many restrictions and sensitive as if the interviewer can see the respondent looking upset they can move on.

Easier to analyse than unstructured interviews trends and patterns can be more easily spotted

Question 53

Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews (theoretical)

Answer 53

Can’t guarantee honesty of participants because of the Hawthorne effect. As there is something in authority interviewing the respondent may lie in order to be perceived in better way or so that they don’t get into trouble.

Flexibility of interview may lessen reliability as people will have different answers from each other.

Open-ended questions are difficult to analyse.

Difficult to compare answers as the answers will differ from person to person.

Question 54

What are observations

Answer 54

Observations involves the researcher watching and analysing the ongoing behaviour of the participants.

Observations can either be participant (interviewer is directly involved) or non-participant (interviewer isn’t directly involved)

Observations can be either covert (the research group do not know they are being researched)
or overt (the research group are aware the observation is taking place).

Question 55

What is participant observation

Answer 55

The researcher joins in the activities of the group they are researching.

Question 56

Advantages of participant observation e.g. validity (theoretical)

Answer 56

As the participant group is being observed in a natural setting the data is more likely to be a true account of the group’s behaviour therefore increasing the validity of the research.

The data that is written data is detailed and offers insight into social behaviour.

Question 57

Disadvantages of participant observation e.g unrepresentative (theoretical)

Answer 57

Most participant observations that are investigated are done small-scale groups that are not representative of the wider population making the research lack validity

Question 58

Disadvantages of participant observation e.g not valid (theoretical)

Answer 58

Because of how the observer is likely to affect the group’s behaviour the researcher is at risk of ‘going native’ (identifies and immerses themselves within the culture) which leads to the researcher over-identifies with the group and therefore making the researchers data less reliable/valid as there attitudes might have changed/they have become desensitised to what is happening around them.

By over-identifying with the group the researcher becomes biased. When this happens, they have stopped being an objective observer and have become a member of the group.

Question 59

Disadvantages of participant observation e.g integrating and leaving the group (practical)

Answer 59

There are issues with getting into the group, staying in the group or leaving the group.

e.g. to gain entry to the group, the researcher will have to win their trust and acceptance. Howevee it is not always possible to take a role that is both unobtrusive and a good vantage point. Some roles may involve taking sides of conflict which can make observation more difficult.

e.g. Getting out of the group at the end of the study can be difficult as re-entering society can be a challenge as they have been so used to the group of people that they have been studying so might find it hard to be in society again.

Question 60

Disadvantages of participant observation e.g anonymity (ethical)

Answer 60

With participant observation it is difficult to ensure anonymity of participants as in order to do the studies information needs to be disclosed

Question 61

Disadvantages of participant observation e.g unreliable (theoretical)

Answer 61

With participant observation as the questions are open-ended and can be left up to interpretation there is no structure and therefore cannot be replicated.

Question 62

What is non-participant observation

Answer 62

The observer avoids any direct involvement with the research group.

Question 63

Advantages of non-participant observation e.g. validity (theoretical)

Answer 63

As the researcher doesn’t have to be directly involved it means that there is less of a risk of the researcher ‘going native’ (becoming emersed in the group and therefore making the research less valid as it becomes biased.

Question 64

Disadvantages of non participant observation e.g. not reliable (theoretical)

Answer 64

As each observation will be subjective it therefore cannot be repeated meaning that the data is not reliable.

Question 65

Disadvantages of non participant observation e.g. not representative (theoretical)

Answer 65

As non participant observation involves a small-scale research sample it means that the data will not representative of a wide demographic of people, making the data less valid.

Question 66

What are overt observation

Answer 66

Overt observation in sociology is where the group being studied knows they are being studied

Question 67

Advantages of overt observations

Answer 67

There are less ethical issues than covert because the participants know they’re being researched.

The observer can openly take notes and therefore can accurately recount what has happened.

Allows researcher to use interview methods as the participants know that they are being observed.

Question 68

Disadvantages of overt observations e.g. time (practical)

Answer 68

Overt observations are time consuming which means that only small groups of people can be studied.

Also, the researcher needs to build a rapport with the participants which also takes a long time.

Question 69

Disadvantages of overt observations e.g. validity (theoretical)

Answer 69

Overt observations lacks validity because of the Hawthorne effect. Because the participants know that they are being watched they are less likely to be how they normally are and more likely to change their actions in order to appear better.

Question 70

Disadvantages of overt observations e.g. reliability (theoretical)

Answer 70

Overt observations aren’t reliable as they are difficult to repat as they are so objective and therefore aren’t repeatable.

Question 71

Disadvantages of overt observations e.g. representative (theoretical)

Answer 71

Because overt observations are done on small scale, they aren’t always representative of the wider population.

Not always representative.

Question 72

What are covert observations

Answer 72

Where the researcher is undercover, the participants are unaware that they are being observed.

Question 73

Advantages of covert observations

Answer 73

Covert observations hold more validity than overt as there is lack of the Hawthorne effect meaning that the participants don’t feel the need to change their actions as they don’t know that they are being watched.

Research is more valid because you have a first-hand insight/experience.

Find out more in-depth detail about why, who, where, when..

Question 74

Disadvantages of covert observations e.g. deceiving (ethical)

Answer 74

It is immoral to deceive people.

Question 75

Disadvantages of covert observations e.g. time (practical)

Answer 75

Researcher has to gain trust and acceptance (this may be time consuming).

Question 76

What are official statistics

Answer 76

Official statistics is quantitative data collected by national and local government or other official agencies e.g. data on births, deaths, marriages/civil partnerships, unemployment, educational attainment (e.g. GCSE results), and crime.

This method is favoured by positivists because data is quick, cheap and easy to access, and it covers a wide range of social issues.

Question 77

Advantages of official statistics e.g. cheap and easy to access (practical)

Answer 77

The data is cheap and easy to and and easy to access e.g. through the Office of National Statistic’s website.

As the data is collected at regular interviews it is easy to compare trends over time e.g. the census is completed every 10 years.

Question 78

Advantages of official statistics e.g. representativeness (theoretical)

Answer 78

Official statistics often cover large groups of people e.g. crime statistics are compiled by police across the entire country. This means that there is lots of representativeness and a large demographic of people can be seen which makes the data more valid.

Question 79

Disadvantages of official statistics

e.g. access (practial)

Answer 79

The government collects these statistics for its own benefit, so they may not cover what sociologists specifically want to study

Definitions may be different e.g. what the government considers ‘poverty may not be the same as a sociologist.

Question 80

What are documents

Answer 80

Documents are a form of secondary qualitative data which can provide a wide variety of information for sociological analysis, depending on the type of document.

Documents are secondary data because they were created by someone else (not the researcher) and therefore already exist. They are qualitative because they provide written information as opposed to numerical data.

There are different types of documents e.g. personal private documents and historical documents.

Question 81

What are personal documents

Answer 81

Personal documents are written documents created with the intention of keeping them private e.g. letters, diaries, school reports, photographs, birth, marriage, and death certificates, rent books, and wills.

These documents provide insights into personal thoughts, feelings, and historical context.

Question 82

Advantages of official documents e.g. validity (theoretical)

Answer 82

Written for personal purposes so will have a high degree of validity and provide an in-depth and genuine insight into people’s attitudes.

Illuminates many areas of social life.

Question 83

Advantages of official documents e.g. money and time and access (practical)

Answer 83

official documents cheap, easy to access and save researcher’s time as the information has already been collected.

Question 84

Advantages of official documents e.g. reliability

Answer 84

Official documents can be used to confirm or question other interpretations and accounts helps to show reliability and the validity of the documents.

Question 85

Disadvantages of official documents e.g. representativeness (theoretical)

Answer 85

Some groups are unlikely to produce personal documents e.g. letters and diaries and so their views aren’t represented while those with time and literacy skills may be over represented such as the M/C. Poorer people will less likely to be represented

Question 86

Disadvantages of official documents e.g. bias (theoretical)

Answer 86

Personal documents e.g. letters are written with an audience in mind and may affect what is being recorded.

Personal bias is likely to be present.

Question 87

what are historical documents

Answer 87

Historical documents provide evidence from the past.

Question 88

Advantages of historical documents

Answer 88

They allow comparisons over time (e.g. birth, death and marriage rates)

They are useful when assessing the outcomes of various social policies (e.g. raising the school leaving age)

Question 89

Disadvantages of historical documents e.g. unrepresentative (theoretical)

Answer 89

Historical documents can be un-representative as some documents may have been lost or destroyed because of this it doesn’t give a full picture on events and the people it effected

Question 90

Disadvantages of historical documents e.g. validity (theoretical)

Answer 90

The validity of the documents are open to question as they may have been written selectively and therefore displaying a certain agenda

Question 91

Disadvantages of historical documents e.g. reliability (theoretical)

Answer 91

The legitimacy of historical documents is open to question as it might not have been written by the person it says it is therefore undermining the reliability of the source

Question 92

what are methods in context

Answer 92

Education is a setting for research and includes specific elements that may change the way in which research is conducted.

This will all depend on the theme, the method and the topic involved.

Question 93

Themes in methods in context

Answer 93

Exam questions on ‘Methods in Context’ always refer to at least one theme. You need to be able to write about a specific research method in relation to that theme.

The five main themes are:

Pupils (vulnerable group, may have difficulty understanding questions, influenced by peers)

Teachers (want to look professional, and are often busy)

Parents (hard to contact, have different levels of education themselves, want to appear as good parents)

Schools (large, protected environment)

Classrooms (small, protected environment)

Question 94

Topics in methods in context

Answer 94

Exam questions on ‘Methods in Context exam questions refer to at least one topic.

You need to be able to write about a specific research method in relation to that topic.