gender differences in achievement

Question 1

The gender gap in achievement:

what is the gender gap in achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 1

2013- teacher assessments of pupils at the end of Yr1 showed girls ahead of boys by 7-17% in literacy, language, maths, personal, social and emotional development.

Department of Education (2013)-
  At AS and A-level girls get higher grades than boys e.g 46.8% of girls gained A or B grades at A-level, but only 42.2% of boys.

  On vocational courses a larger proportion of girls achieve distinctions in all subjects including engineering and construction where girls are a tiny minority of the students.

Question 2

Gender differences in achievement:

how has the impact of feminism affect girls achievement (use sociologists)

EXTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 2

McRobbie’s (1994) study of girls’ magazines. In the 1970s, they emphasised the importance of getting married and not being ‘left on the shelf’, whereas nowadays, they contain images of assertive, independent women.

these changes encourage girls to try harder at school to be like the people who they see in the magazines.

Question 3

Gender differences in achievement:

how has the impact on changes in the family impact girls achievement (use sociologist)

EXTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 3

An increase in the divorce rate, an increase in cohabitation and a decrease in the number in first marriages, an increase in the number of lone parent families
smaller families all lead to girls achieving more.

An increased number of female-headed lone parent families may mean more women need to take on the bread winner role. This creates a new role model for girls to be the the financial independent women. To achieve this independence women need well paid jobs and therefore need good qualifications.

An increase in the divorce rate may suggest to girls that it is unwise to solely rely in a husband to be their sole provider. This encourages girls to look at themselves and their own qualifications to make a living.

Question 4

Gender differences in achievement:

how does women’s change in employment impact girls achievement (use sociologists)

EXTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 4

Equal Pay Act (1970) this makes it illegal to pay women less than men for work of the equal value

The Sex Discrimination Act (1975) - means that women aren’t allowed to be discriminated against because they are a woman. (outlaws discrimination at work) e.g since 1975, the pay gap between men and women has halved from 30%-15%

The proportion of women in employment has risen from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013. The growth of the service sector and flexibility part time work has offered opportunities for women

These changes have encouraged girls to see their future in terms of paid wok rather as housewives. Greater career opportunities and better pay for women and the role model that successful career women offer provide incentives for girls to gain qualifications

Some women are no breaking through the ‘glass ceiling- the invisible barrier that keeps them from out of high professional and managerial jobs.

Question 5

Gender differences in achievement:

how have girls changes in ambition impacted girls achievement (use sociologists)

EXTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 5

Sue Sharpe’s (1994) interviews with girls in the 1970s and the 1990s show a major shift in the way that furls see their future.

In 1970s, the girls had low aspirations they believed educational success was unfeminine and that appearing to ambitious would be considered to be unattractive. By the 1990s, the girls ambitions had changed and Sharpe found that girl were more likely to see their future as an independent woman with a career rather than as a dependent on their husband and his income.

Some girls from Fullers (20011) study, educational success was a central aspect of their identity. They saw themselves as creators of their own future and had an individualised notion of self.

They believed in meritocracy (equal opportunity for every individual to achieve) and aimed for a professional career that would enable them to support themselves.

Question 6

Gender differences in achievement:

how does gender, class and ambition link together (use sociologists)

EXTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 6

Some w/c girls continue to have gender stereotypes aspirations for marriage and children and expect to go into traditional low paid women’s work

Reay (1998)- argues this reflects the reality of the girls class position. Their limited aspirations reflect their limited job opportunities they perceive being available to them. Being a mother and married is both attainable and offers them a sort of status.

Biaggart (2002)- found that w/c girls are more likely to face precarious position in the labour market and to see motherhood as the only viable option for their futures. See less point in achieving in education.

Question 7

Gender differences in achievement:

how does equal opportunities impact girls achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 7

policies such as GIST (Girls into science and technology) and WISE (Women into science and engineering) encourage girls to pursue careers in these non-traditional areas. This helps girls to aim high and therefore get more qualifications. 

The introduction of the National Curriculum in 1988 removed one source of gender inequality by making girls and boys study mostly the same subjects, which was often not the case previously. This means that girls aren’t being singled out and can achieve anything they want to.

Boaler (1998)- many of the barriers have been removed and schooling has become more meritocratic (based on equal opportunities) - so that girls work harder and achieve more.

Question 8

Gender differences in achievement:

how have positive role models in school impact girls achievement (use sociologists)

INTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 8

There has been an increase in the proportion of female teachers and heads. These women in senior positions may act as role models for girls, showing them women can achieve positions of importance and giving them non-traditional goals to aim for.

To become a teacher, you need high qualifications and a successful education and therefore girls will see that and want to achieve the same thing. .

Question 9

Gender differences in achievement:

How have GCSEs and coursework impacted girls achievement (use sociologists)

INTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 9

Gorard (2005) found that when GCSEs were introduced the gender gap increased. GCSEs brought coursework as a major part of nearly all subjects. Gorard concludes that the gender gap in achievement is because of coursework being introduced which lead to the failing of boys.

Mitsos and Browne (1998) conclude that girls are more successful in coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised than boys and this allows them to do better compared to boys which is unfair.

With GCSEs there are also  oral exams and girls also do better than boys on these as well because girls often have a ‘bedroom culture’ which allows them to talk lots and therefore have a  better developed language skills compared to boys.

Question 10

Gender differences in achievement:

how does teacher’s attention impact girls achievement (use sociologists)

INTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 10

 Jane and Peter French (1993) - found that boys received more attention because they attracted more telling’s offs. 

 Swann (1998)- found gender differences in communication styles. Boys dominate in whole-class discussion, whereas girls prefer pair-work and group-work and are better at listening and cooperating e.g take turns while speaking compared to shouting over each other.

Teachers are more likely to respond positively to girls, who they see as cooperative compared to boys who they see as disruptive.

This leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy in which successful interactions with teachers promote girls’ self-esteem and raise their achievement level

Question 11

Gender differences in achievement:

how does challenging stereotypes in the curriculum impact girls achievement (use sociologists)

INTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 11

In the 1970s and 80s textbooks portrayed women as housewives and mothers and physics books showed them as frightened by science, and that maths books.

This helps to keep that barrier there for girls and women and means that they will be more likely to be compliant with being a housewife. 

Gaby Weiner (1995) argues that since the 1980s, teachers have challenged such stereotypes. Sexist images have been removed from learning materials. This enables women and girls to continue to do well in education as there is no longer that barrier there stopping them. 

 This may have helped to raise girls achievement by presenting them with more positive images of what women can do.

Question 12

Gender differences in achievement:

How have selection and league tables impacted girls education.

INTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 12

Marketisation policies have created a more competitive climate in which schools see girls as desirable recruits because they achieve better exam results.

Jackson (1998)- the introduction of exam league tables has improved opportunities for girls e.g high-achieving girls- attractive to schools low-achieving boys are not. This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy- because girls are more likely to be recruited by good schools, they are more likely to do well.

Slee (1998) argues that boys are less attractive to schools because they are more likely to suffer from behaviour issues. Because boys give the school a negative image they are less likely to be accepted.

Question 13

Gender differences in achievement:

Different feminists views on girls achievement

INTERNAL FACTOR

Answer 13

Liberal feminists - celebrate progress made improving achievement. Believe that more progress will be made by continuing development of equal opportunities policies, encouraging positive role models and overcoming sexist attitudes and stereotypes.

Radical feminists- recognise that girls are achieving more, they emphasise that the system remains patriarchal and conveys the clear message that it is still a man’s world e.g Sexual harassment of girls continues at school.

Weiner (1993) - the secondary school history curriculum as a ‘woman-free zone’. Women are under-represented e.g history

Although there are now more female head teachers, male teachers are still more likely to become heads of secondary schools.

Question 14

Identity:

How can symbolic capital impact girls achievement (use sociologist)

Answer 14

Archer (2010) - found that by performing their w/c feminine identities, the girls gained symbolic capital from their peers. However, this brought them into conflict with school, preventing them from getting educational capital (qualifications) and economic capital (middle-class careers).

 Symbolic capital refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth that we are able to obtain from others.

Question 15

Identity:

How can a hyper heterosexual feminine identities impact girls achievement (use sociologist)

Answer 15

The girls’ use of this feminine identity brought status from their female peer group and avoided them being insulted.

However, it also brought them into conflict with school e.g they were often punished for having the wrong appearance: too much jewellery, the wrong clothing or makeup and so on. 

Teachers saw the girls’ preoccupation with appearance as a distraction that prevented them engaging with education. This led to the school ‘othering’ the girls - defining them as ‘not one of us’, incapable of educational success and thus less worthy of respect. 

Archer- from the school’s point of view, the ‘ideal female pupil’ identity is a de-sexualised and middle-class one that excludes many working-class girls.

Question 16

Identity:

How do boyfriends impact girls achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 16

Having a boyfriend brought symbolic capital, it got in the way of schoolwork and lowered girls’ aspirations.

This included losing interest in going to university, in studying ‘masculine’ subjects such as science or in a professional career.

These girls aspired to have children and work locally in w/c feminine jobs such as childcare. 

Question 17

Identity:

How can being loud impact girls achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 17

Some w/c girls adopted ‘loud’ feminine identities that often led them to be outspoken, independent and assertive. 

e.g questioning teachers’ authority. This didn’t match the school’s stereotype of the ideal female pupil identity as passive and submissive to authority and brought conflict with teachers, who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive rather than assertive.

Question 18

Class:

What is the w/c girls dilemma and how does this impact girls achievement

Answer 18

W/C girls are often faced with two choices, they can either gain symbolic capital from their peers by conforming to a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity or gain educational capital by conforming to the schools middle-class notions of a respectable, ideal female pupil 

 Some girls tried to cope with this dilemma by defining themselves as ‘good underneath’. This reflects the girls’ struggle to achieve a sense of self-worth within an education system that devalues their working-class feminine identities.

 Archer argues that working-class feminine identities and educational success conflict with feminine  identities 

Question 19

Girls achievement:

What is a successful w/c girl and how does this impact girls achievement (use sociologist)

Answer 19

Identities, class and girls achievement: Successful w/c girls

Some w/c girls do succeed and go on to higher education but may be disadvantaged by their gender and class identities, 

Evans (2009) found that the girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power. However, this was help their families. This shows that even with successful w/c girls, the ‘caring’ aspect of w/c feminine identity produces a desire to live at home with their families while studying. This results in their self-exclusion from elite universities further afield.

 Archer (2010)- found that w/c looked for local unis and this was a key feature of the w/c habitus. The gender identity of w/c girls plays a significant part in their relative lack of success compared with middle-class girls.

Question 20

Boys and achievement:

Reasons why boys are lacking in their achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 20

DCSF (2007), the gender gap is mainly the result of boys’ poorer literacy and language skills. 

One reason for this may be that parents spend less time reading to their sons. By parents not reading with their son it means that their vocab wouldn’t be as good which means that they struggle in lessons. As well as this, because typically mothers read with their children, boys associate reading as being a feminine activity and don’t read in order to show their masculinity.

Boys’ leisure pursuits, such as football, do little to help develop their language and communication skills.  By contrast, girls tend to have a ‘bedroom culture’ centred on staying in and talking with friends.

Question 21

Boys and achievement:

how has globalisation and the decline of traditional men’s jobs impacted boys achievements.

Answer 21

Mitsos and Browne - the decline in male employment opportunities has led to an ‘identity crisis for men’. Many boys now believe that they have little prospect of getting a proper job. This undermines their motivation and self-esteem and so they give up trying to get qualifications.

Question 22

Boys and achievement:

how has the feminisation of education impacted boys achievement.

Answer 22

Sewell (2006) - boys fall behind because education has become ‘feminised’.   Schools don’t nurture ‘masculine’ traits such as competitiveness and leadership instead enforce methodical working and attentiveness in class which are traits known to be associated with girls.

Sewell- argues that coursework has also lead to gender differences in achievement. Girls do better because they are more consciousness and organised compared to boys. He argues that some coursework should be replaced with final exams and a greater emphasis placed on outdoor adventure in the curriculum.

Question 23

Boys and achievement:

how has the shortage of male teachers impacted boys achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 23

There are 1.5 million female-headed lone parent families in the UK and many of these families have sons. Because they don’t have a male role model to look up either in/out of school they have no one to encourage them which leads to their failure.

(2007)- 14% of primary school teachers are male and 42% of boys surveyed said that having a male teacher made them work harder. Male teachers are better able to impose the strict discipline boys need in order to concentrate.

Question 24

Boys and achievement:

what is disciplinarian discourse and liberal discourse (use sociologists)

Answer 24

Read (2008)- found that most teachers, female as well as male, used a supposedly ‘masculine’ disciplinarian discourse to control pupils’ behaviour.

Disciplinarian discourse: the teacher’s authority is made explicit and visible e.g shouting or sarcasm. (traditionally used by male teachers )

Liberal discourse: the teacher’s authority is implicit and invisible. The teacher speaks to the pupil as if they were an adult and expects them to be kind, sensible and respectful of the teacher (traditionally used by female teachers)

Question 25

Boys and achievement:

Are more male teachers needed (use sociologists)

Answer 25

Read (2008)- found that most teachers, female as well as male, used a supposedly ‘masculine’ disciplinarian discourse to control pupils’ behaviour.

This disproves the fact that education has become feminised as both teachers are using disciplinary discourse. Also, it disproves the claim that only male teachers can provide the stricter classroom culture in which boys are said to thrive.

Haase (2008)- although women make up the majority of primary teachers, men are still more likely to get higher positions male teachers in the UK have a 1/4 chance of becoming headteacher and women 1/13

Question 26

Boys and achievement:

How does laddish subculture affect boys achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 26

Epstein (1998) - found that working-class boys are likely to be harassed and verbally abused if they appear to be ‘swots’ (try hard).

Francis (2001)- found that boys were more concerned about being labelled as a swot as it was a threat to their masculinity. This is because in w/c culture  masculinity is equated with being tough and doing manual work 

 Francis- argues that the spread of laddish subculture is because as girls move into traditional masculine career boys respond by more laddish/masculine in order not to appear feminine

Question 27

Boys and achievement:

how does the moral panic of boys impact boys achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 27

moral panic of failing boys- a fear that underachieving w/c boys will grow up to become a dangerous, unemployable underclass that threatens social stability.

Ringrose (2013) - argues the moral panic has caused a major shift in educational policy, which is now preoccupied with raising boys achievements. This policy shift ignores the problem of disadvantaged w/c and minority ethnic pupils and it ignores other problems faced by girls in school e.g sexual harassment and stereotyped  subject choices.

 Audrey Osler (2006)- the focus on underachieving boys has led to a neglect of girls. This is partly because girls often disengage from school quietly. However, boys’ disengagement often takes the form of public displays of laddish’ masculinity that attract attention from teachers and policymakers.

Question 28

Boys and achievement:

how does gender, class and ethnicity impact boys achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 28

McVeigh (2001) - the similarities in girls’ and boys’ achievement are far greater than the differences, especially when compared with class or ethnic differences e.g the class gap in achievement at GCSE is 3x wider than the gender gap. These figures show that class is a more important influence on a pupil’s achievement than gender.

The extent to which gender influences achievement depends on a pupil’s class and ethnic group e.g the gender gap among black Caribbean pupils is greater than among other ethnic groups.

Fuller (1984)- many black girls are successful at school (use education in order to achieve independence and ignore teachers racist attitudes. By contrast, as Sewell (2010)- black boys fail at school because they use their masculinity in opposition to education, which they see as effeminate and therefore don’t try which leads to failure.

Question 29

Gender and subject choice:

How does the  national curriculum options impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 29

Where there is a choice in the National Curriculum, girls and boys choose differently. e.g although DT is a compulsory, girls tend to choose the food tech and boys choose graphics.

Question 30

Gender and subject choice:

How does AS levels and A Levels impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 30

Gendered subject choices become more noticeable after 16, when students have more choice.

e.g in entries for A level subjects boys opting for maths and physics and girls choosing subjects such as sociology, English and languages.

 The Institute of Physics (2012) - found that the physics students who are girls has been around 20%, for over 20 years.

Question 31

Gender and subject choice:

How does vocational courses impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 31

Gender segregation is noticeable in vocational training. e.g 1/100 childcare apprentices is a boy.

Question 32

Gender differences in achievement:

what is/how does gender role socialisation impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 32

Gender role socialisation - the process of learning behaviour expected of males and females in society.

Norman (1988) - from an early age, boys and girls are dressed differently, given different toys and encouraged to take part in different activities. This means for when they are older they are more likely to go into careers that suit their gender.

Byrne (1979)- teachers encourage boys to be tough and show initiative and not be weak or behave like sissies. Girls on the other hand are expected to be quiet, helpful, clean and tidy.

Question 33

Gender differences in subject choice:

what is/how does gender domains impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 33

gender domains =  tasks and activities that boys and girls see as male or female ‘territory’ e.g mending a car is seen as falling within the male gender domain, but looking after a sick child falls into the female gender domain. . 

Browne and Ross (1991)- When they are set the same maths problem girls are more confident in tackling it when it is presented as being about food and nutrition, whereas boys are more confident if it is about cars. This shows how ‘gender domains’ are shaped by their early experiences.

Murphy (1991) - found that boys and girls pay attention to different details even when tackling the same task e.g girls focus more on how people feel, whereas boys focus on how things are made and work. This helps to explain why girls choose humanities (to do with feelings) and arts subjects, while boys choose science (to do with facts).

Question 34

Gender differences in subject choice:

what is/how does gendered subject images impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 34

gendered subject images- subjects that are seen as either male or female e.g is seen as for women and maths for men.

Kelly- science is seen as a boys’ subject as science teachers are more likely to be men and the examples teachers use, and those in textbooks, often draw on boys’ rather than girls’ interests.

Colley (1998)- computer studies is seen as a masculine subject as it involves working with machines - part of the male gender domain and 
the way it is taught is off-putting to women e.g teaching style is formal with few opportunities for group work, which girls favour

Question 35

Gender differences in subject choice:

how does single-sex schooling impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 35

Pupils who attend single-sex schools tend to hold less stereotyped subject images and make less traditional subject choices. 

Leonard (2006) - found that, compared to pupils in mixed schools, girls in girls’ schools were more likely to take maths and science A levels, while boys in boys’ schools were more likely to take English and languages.

The Institute of Physics - found that girls in single-sex state schools were 2.4x more likely to take A-level physics than those in mixed schools. 

Question 36

Gender differences in subject choice:

how does gender identity and peer pressure impact gender achievement

Answer 36

Subject choice can be influenced by peer pressure. 

Boys and girls may apply pressure to an individual if they disapprove of his or her choice. e.g boys tend to opt out of music and dance it fall outside their gender domain and so are likely to attract a negative response from peers.

Dewar (1990) found that male students would call girls ‘lesbian’ or ‘butch’ if they appeared to be interested in sport meaning that girls would more likely to pick subjects that aligned with stereotypes

Question 37

Gender differences in subject choice:

how does gendered career opportunities impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 37

In subject choices, employment is highly gendered: jobs tend to be sex-typed as ‘men’s’ or ‘women’s’.

 Women’s jobs often involve work similar to that performed by housewives, such as childcare and nursing e.g   over 1/2 of women’s employment categories are in service. This it means that women are less likely to look for a job elsewhere and therefore achieve differently as there aren’t the same opportunities. 

 This affects boys and girts’ ideas about what kinds of job are possible or acceptable e.g  if boys get the message that nursery nurses are female, they will be less likely to opt for a course in childcare.

This links to how vocational courses are more gender-specific than academic courses as they are linked to career plans.

Question 38

Gender differences in subject choice:

how does gender, vocational choice and class affect gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 38

There is a social class link to choice of vocational course. W/C pupils may make decisions about vocational courses that are based on a traditional sense of gender identity e.g Fuller (2011) W/C girls  had ambitions to go into jobs such as child care or hair and beauty. This reflected their working-class habitus - their sense of what is a realistic expectation for ‘people like us.

Fuller - found that placements in feminine, w/c jobs such as nursery, nursing and retail work were overwhelmingly the norm for w/c girls

This shows how schools steer girls towards certain types of job and through  types of vocational course  through the work experience placements it offered them.

Question 39

Gender differences in subject choice:

what is/how do double standards impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 39

Double standards - double standards exists when we apply one set of moral standards to one group but a different set to another group e.g girls can cry, boys can’t.

Lees (1993)- highlights the double standard of sexual morality in which boys boast about their own sexual exploits, but call a girl a ‘slag’ if she doesn’t have a steady boyfriend or if she dresses in a certain way.

 Paechter - sees name-calling as helping to shape gender identity and maintain male power. The use of negative labels such as ‘gay, ‘queer’ and ‘lezzie’ are ways in which pupils police each other’s sexual identities and helps to keep traditional gender roles.

Feminists see these double standards as an example of a patriarchal ideology that justifies male power and devalues women. e.g social control that reinforces gender inequality by keeping females subordinate to males.

Question 40

Pupils’ sexual and gender identities:

how does verbal abuse impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 40

Lees (1986) found that boys called girls ‘slags’ if they appeared to be sexually available - and ‘drags’ if they didn’t. Helps to keep women in their place.

Parker (1996) - found that boys were labelled gay for being friendly with girls or female teachers. Shows how boys are socialised to think that women are only viewed as a sexual conquest.

Question 41

Pupils’ sexual and gender identities:

what is/how does the male gaze impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 41

male gaze- a way of portraying and looking at women that empowers men while sexualizing and diminishing women.

Mac an Ghaill - sees the male gaze as a form of surveillance through which dominant heterosexual masculinity is reinforced and femininity devalued. 

It is one of the ways boys prove their masculinity to their friends and is often combined with constant telling and retelling of stories about sexual conquests. 

Boys who do not display their heterosexuality in this way run the risk of being labelled gay.

Question 42

Pupils’ sexual and gender identities:

how do male peer groups impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 42

Male peer groups also use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity. 

 Epstein and Willis - boys in anti-school subcultures often accuse boys who want to do well at school of being gay or effeminate. Helps to show male power and domination.

Mac an Ghaill’s (1994) peer groups reproduce a range of different class-based masculine gender identities. e.g the w/c ‘macho lads’ dismissed other boys who worked hard and aspired to have m/c careers, referring to them as the dickhead achievers’.

M/C boys projected an image of ‘effortless achievement’ - of succeeding without trying though in reality they worked really hard.

Question 43

Pupils’ sexual and gender identities:

what is an idealised feminine identity, sexualised identity and a boffin identity (use sociologists)

Answer 43

Ringrose’s (2013) - found that being popular was crucial to the girls’ identity.

‘an idealised feminine identity’- showing loyalty to the female peer group, being non-competitive and getting along with everybody in the friendship group.

‘A sexualised identity’ - involved competing for boys in the dating.

‘A boffin identity’ - girls who want to be successful educationally were called this. Links to the ideal feminine pupil identity.

Question 44

Pupils’ sexual and gender identities:

how does policing identity impact gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 44

Ringrose’s (2013) - found that being popular was crucial to the girls’ identity. As the girls gained thought about boyfriends they had to think about they has to choose between an ‘ idealised feminine identity’, ‘sexualised identity’ and a ‘boffin identity’

Reay (2001) found, this involved the girls having to perform an asexual identity, presenting themselves as lacking any interest in boyfriends or popular fashion.

As a result, they risk being given the identity of ‘boffin’ and excluded by other girls (as well as boys).

Question 45

Pupils’ sexual and gender identities:

how do teachers and discipline affect gender achievement (use sociologists)

Answer 45

Haywood and Mac an Ghaill (1998) - found that male teachers told boys off for behaving like girls and teased them when they got lower marks then girls.

Teachers also tended to ignore the verbal abuse that boys said to/about girls and even blamed girls for attracting it.

Askew and Ross (1988) - male teachers often have a protective attitude towards female colleagues, coming into their classes to ‘rescue’ them by threatening pupils who are being disruptive. However, this reinforces the idea that women cannot cope alone.