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Finals Review > Research Methods I > Flashcards

Research Methods I Flashcards

1
Q

Goal of Science

A

General approach to understanding natural world

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2
Q

Systematic Empiricism

A

Learning based on observations of real world

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3
Q

Empirical Questions

A

Questions about the way the world is, some not observable

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4
Q

Public Knowledge

A

Work published in journal within context of prior work

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5
Q

Three fundamental features of science

A

Systematic empiricism, empirical questions, and public knowledge

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6
Q

Pseudosciences

A

activities and beliefs claimed scientific via proponents

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7
Q

Three sins of pseudosciences

A

Claim to be scientific, lacks one or more of the 3 features of science, and not empirically based, can not be falsified

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8
Q

Clinical practice of psychology

A

diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and related problems

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9
Q

Empirically supported treatments

A

Studied scientifically and results in improvement compared to no treatment, placebo, or alternative

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10
Q

Variable

A

Quantity/quality varying across people/situations

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11
Q

Quantitative Variable

A

Quantity measured by assigning number to individual

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12
Q

Categorical Variable

A

Quality measured by assigning label to individuals

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13
Q

Population & Sample

A

Very large group of People.

Small/subset of populationi

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14
Q

Random Sampling

A

every member of population has equal chance to be selected for sample. Difficult/impossible due to less definition of population

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15
Q

Convenience Sampling

A

Individuals who happen to be nearby, willing to participate, may not represent population

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16
Q

Statistical relationship

A

Occurs between two variables when average score differs across levels of other variable

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17
Q

Difference between groups

A

One for of statistical relationships, displayed as bar graph typically

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18
Q

Correlation between Quantitative Variables

A

second form of statistical relationships, displayed as scatterplots.

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19
Q

Relationships (+/-)

A

Positive when high scores on one variable associate with higher scores on other.
Negative when higher scores on one associate with lower scores on other.

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20
Q

Strength of Correlation

A

For quantitative variables use Pearson’s r, range from -1 to +1 good for linear relationships.

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21
Q

Correlation and Causation

A

Correlation does not imply causation, independent variable is thought to be cause and is manipulated while dependent variable is the effect or result.

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22
Q

Difference between correlation and causation

A

directionality problem where X causes Y or Y causes X. Third-variable problem has another variable, Z causing both X and Y.

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23
Q

Research Literature

A

published research in field, enormous for psychology, must be either article in professional journals, or scholarly books in psychology and related fields

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24
Q

Professional Journals

A

Monthly/quarterly published either Empirical research report (one< study) with method and conclusions. Review articles summarize previous and present new organization of results. Theoretical article is review article devoted to showing new theory

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25
Q

Double-blind peer review

A

manuscript is submitted to editor- established researcher who sends it to other experts.

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26
Q

Scholarly Books

A

Written for practitioners for use by other researchers and practitioners, monograph= single author or small group for coherent presentation.
Edited volumes have small group or one editor review and write chapters on same topic

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27
Q

Databases

A

Academic Search Premier, JSTOR, and ProQuest for general information. Use PscyINFO for APA information, comprehensive

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28
Q

Ethics

A

Branch of philosophy concerned with morality, set of principles and practices providing moral guidance in field

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29
Q

Three principles of Tri-Council Policy Statement

A

Respect for Persons, Concern for Welfare, and Justice

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30
Q

Respect for Persons

A

Respect autonomy with free, informed, and ongoing consent and protect those incapable of such due to age, impairment, illness, and other issues. Concepts are autonomy and protection

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31
Q

Concern for Welfare

A

No unnecessary risk, privacy is considered, confidentiality, and enough information to assess risks and benefits.

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32
Q

Justice

A

Fair and equal treatment, vulnerabilities considered and marginalized groups are not unjustly excluded, compensation given if needed, meet professional obligations

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33
Q

Confederate

A

Helper pretending to be a real participant

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34
Q

Autonomy

A

Right to make own choices free from coercion

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35
Q

Informed Consent

A

Obtain and document agreement to participate in study after being informed of what may affect decision

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36
Q

Privacy

A

Right to decide what information of selves is shared with others

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37
Q

Confidentiality

A

Maintained by researcher, agreement to not disclose personal information without consent or legal authorization

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38
Q

Ethical Conflict Inevitable?

A

Yes, can be minimized in risks and maximizing the benefits so they are unequal

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39
Q

Nuremberg Code

A

10 principles in 1947 with Nazi physicians who committed unspeakable actions

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40
Q

Declaration of Helsinki

A

World Medical Council, 1964, human research based on written protocol, or detailed research reviewed by committee

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41
Q

Belmont report

A

Recognized principle of seeking justice, and balancing risks and benefits of groups at societal level

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42
Q

Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans

A

TCPS-2 of the social sciences and humanities research council, institutes of health research, and natural sciences and engineering research council are all in Canada in 1988, 2010 had TCPS-2 arise updating all responsibilities

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43
Q

REB

A

Research Ethics Board, committee responsible for reviewing protocols in research for ethical problems. Has two members with expertise in disciplines, one expert in ethics, and community member with no affiliation

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44
Q

Full REB review

A

Default requirement for human research

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45
Q

Minimal risk research

A

Likelihood of harms is no greater than those encountered by participants in aspects of everyday life, includes surveys, naturalistic observation, questionnaire-based studies

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46
Q

APA Ethics Code

A

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, much research concerns clinical practice of psychology, use Standard 8 for research and publication.

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47
Q

Consent Form

A

to be red and signed, good practice to tell participants of risks and benefits, demonstrate procedure, ask if any questions arise, and remind of right to withdraw at any time. Not necessary all time if in public place where person have no belief of privacy

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48
Q

Deception

A

misinforming participants on purpose of study, confederates, phony equipment, false feedback, allowed when benefits outweigh harm

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49
Q

Debriefing

A

Informing participants as soon as possible of purpose of study, revealing deception, correcting other misconceptions, minimize harm which occurred, return mood to happy thoughts.

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50
Q

Scholarly Integrity

A

No fabrication of data or plagiarism, direct quotations, citation provided

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51
Q

Ethical responsibilites

A

To be known and accepted, reading and understanding TCPS-2, REB review, minimal harm is disclosed

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52
Q

What should be done with risks with respect to the APA’s recommendations?

A

Are too be identified and minimized, may be accustomed to the risks and so reduce or eliminate as many as you can by modifying research design. Prescreening helps minimize participants at higher risk as well. Finally, active steps to maintain confidentiality,

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53
Q

Deception (minimized and Identified)

A

Generally accepted to wait until debriefing to reveal research question as long as procedure, risks, and benefits are disclosed in informed consent process.

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54
Q

Informed Consent and Debriefing

A

Provide as much information as possible, script or talking points created, informed consent covering all rights of persons, debriefing to identify all risks and benefits to person. When approved remain vigilant to potential risks

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55
Q

Measurement

A

Assignment of scores to individuals so scores show some characteristic of individual

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56
Q

Psychometrics

A

Psychological measurement, needs some systematic procedure for assigning of scores to represent characteristic of interest

57
Q

Psychological Constructs

A

Variable which can not be assessed by observation, lack capacity to behave in certain manner, internal process are involved.

58
Q

Conceptual definition

A

Describes behaviours and internal processes making up construct and relation to other variables.

59
Q

Operational Definitions

A

Definition of variable in terms of measurement, self-report measures (report thoughts/feelings), behavioural measures (observed and recorded behaviours), and physiological measures (recording heart rate, BP, GSR, hormones).

60
Q

Converging Operations

A

Multiple operational definitions of same construct in or across studies

61
Q

Levels of measurement

A

Nominal level (categorical variables, no ordering), ordinal level (scores to represent rank-order of individuals, no representation of intervals), interval level (numerical scale with same interval and same interpretation for such intervals throughout, no true zero point however), and ratio level (true zero point representing complete absence)

62
Q

Reliability

A

consistency of measures,

63
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

reliability across time, correlation done by scatterplot and Pearson’s r. Above .7 is good, .8 and above ideal.

64
Q

Internal consistency

A

Consistency of answers across items on multiple-item measure, split-half correlation with two sets of items and score computed for each set, calculated using Cronbach’s alpha. Above .7 is good, .8 and above ideal.

65
Q

Interrater Reliability

A

Extent to which different observers are consistent in judgments, calculated with Cronbach’s alpha or Cohen’s kappa when categorical, above .7 is good but .8 and above is ideal.

66
Q

Validity

A

Extent to which scores represent variable intended to

67
Q

Face Validity

A

The extent to which measurement appears to measure the construct of interest to the everyday person. Weak evidence of validity, take it at face value, subject to social desirability bias.

68
Q

Content Validity

A

Measure covers construct of interest, done by checking method against conceptual definition of construct

69
Q

Criterion/Construct Validity and convergent validity

A

The extent of scores correlating with other variables it should correlate with.

Convergent is when the variables we expect to correlate do in fact correlate. The focus on correlation.

70
Q

Concurrent Validity

A

When the criterion is correlated with other constructs and is able to predict the results of other constructs. Focus is on prediction here.

71
Q

Predictive validity

A

When the criterion is measured at some point in the future after construct has been measured, as the scores predicted the future outcome. You focus on predicting future behaviours.

72
Q

Discriminant Validity

A

The extent of scores on the measure not correlating with measures of variables it should not correlate with, questions on extraversion should not correlate with openness.

You also do not want too high a correlation either as it suggests the concepts are tapping into the same construct, .9 is excessively high as correlation.

73
Q

Creating an Operational Definition

A

Existing Measure is typically best as you save time and effort, already tested to be valid and results can be compared with previous studies. Making own measure still look to literature, strive for simplicity weighed against need for multiple items rather than one, done for content validity, and have way of measuring overall score.

74
Q

Convergent Validity

A

Extent to which measurement method works in same way as existing measures

75
Q

Socially Desirable Responding

A

People respond in ways they are expect to, do not want to look bad in eyes of researcher

76
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Subtle cues revealing how researcher expects participants to be behave, prevented by making as simple and brief so as not to tempt participants into venting frustrations on results or guarantee anonymity

77
Q

Evaluating Measure

A

Done by evaluating reliability and validity, if data casts doubt on reliability or validity then ask why, could be a number of reasons why.

78
Q

Experiment

A

Study designed to answer question of causal relationship between independent and dependent variable

79
Q

Conditions

A

First fundamental feature of experiments where we see different levels of independent variable

80
Q

Extraneous Variable

A

Second fundamental feature of experiments which is attempted to be controlled, add noise to experiment and make reading it harder

81
Q

Internal validity

A

Purpose of experiment to show two variables are statistically related, logic where two similar conditions are created and independent variable creates difference(s) between them

82
Q

External Validity

A

High if the way the study is done supports generalizing results to people and situations beyond those studied, often said to be mundane realism

83
Q

Psychological realism

A

Same mental process is used in both laboratory and real world

84
Q

Experiments and external validity

A

Blanket conclusion of experiments being low in validity is true in part since they learn of psychological processes operating in variety of people and situations

85
Q

Construct Validity

A

Quality of experiment’s manipulations, sees conversion from research question to experimental design or operationalization

86
Q

Statistical Validity

A

Speaks to whether statistics conducted in study support conclusions made, number of conditions or participants determine effect size, power analysis for any real difference

87
Q

Manipulation Check

A

Separate measure of construct attempting to be measured on the part of the researcher

88
Q

Controlling Extraneous Variables

A

Can be done by holding them constant, testing everyone in same place, same instructions, and treating same way

89
Q

Noise

A

Created by extraneous variables and make it difficult to detect effect of independent variable by adding variability to data and becoming confounding variables

90
Q

Confounding Variable

A

Extraneous variable differing on average across levels of independent variables,

91
Q

Problems of Confounding Variable

A

Confound means to confuse which is what the variables do, they provide alternative explanation for any observed difference in the dependent variable. Avoided by holding extraneous variables constant.

92
Q

Between-Subjects

A

Participants are tested in only one condition. simpler, require less time for testing, avoid carryover effects.

93
Q

Random Assignment

A

Random process to decide which participants are tested in which conditions, important in all experiments yet unlikely to result in equal sample sizes in different conditions.

94
Q

Block Randomization

A

All conditions occur once in sequence before any are repeated, occur in random order, generated prior to testing participants.

95
Q

Limits of Random Assignment

A

Not guaranteed to control all extraneous variables across conditions, participants may be older, younger, not concern because confound is detected when experiment is replicated.

96
Q

Treatment

A

Any intervention meant to change behaviours for the better, psychotherapies, and medical treatments for disorders and learning, conservation, reduce prejudice, and so on.

97
Q

Treatment and Control Condition

A

Treatment has participant receive treatment, control has no treatment, if treatment works they then receive the treatment, no-treatment has a placebo given so the placebo effect occurs where the expectancy of feeling better causes improvement.

98
Q

Randomized clinical trial

A

Psychotherapies and medical treatments involve this type of experiment

99
Q

Placebo Control condition vs. no-treatment control

A

Receive placebo that looks like treatment yet lacks active ingredient/element responsible for effectiveness.
No treatment has no treatment whatsoever

100
Q

Waitlist Control Condition

A

Participants will receive the treatment but must wait until treatment condition has received it, alternatively leave out control condition altogether and compare to best alternative treatment.

101
Q

Within-subjects

A

Participants are tested under all conditions, maximum control on extraneous variables, made to be less noisy. Control extraneous variables, reduce noise, and detect relationship between independent and dependent variable.

102
Q

Carryover effect

A

effect of being tested in one condition on participants behaviour in later conditions. First condition’s potential effect carryover to next conditions

103
Q

Practice Effect

A

type of carryover effect wherein a task is better performed due to the chance to practice it

104
Q

Fatigue Effect

A

Task is performed worse due to becoming tired or bored, carryover effect.

105
Q

Context Effect

A

Changes in the survey when participants perceive stimuli/interpret task in a different context. Examples: Option A changes to option D, influential questions and order, anonymity/confidentiality, purpose of research is presented.

106
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Testing different participants in different orders, random orders typically, controls order of conditions and detection of carryover effects.

107
Q

Simultaneous Within-Subjects Designs

A

Presenting all information to the participants in a sequence within a randomized order.

108
Q

Which is better within-subject or between-subject

A

within-subject, with proper counterbalancing, using one does not preclude using the other however.

109
Q

Subject Pool

A

Established group of people agreeing to be contacted for participating in research studies

110
Q

Standardization

A

Unintended bias on part of experimenter where multiple extraneous variables are introduced

111
Q

Experimenter Expectancy Effect

A

Expectations about participants feelings and behaviour may unintentionally give clearer instructions or encouragement or more time allotted

112
Q

Minimizing unintended variation in procedure

A

Standardize with written protocol, standard instructions, automate procedure, anticipate questions on part of participants, train many experimenters on protocol together

113
Q

Double-Blind Study

A

Minimize experimenter expectations by making experimenter and participant blind to the condition which participants are in, may not always be possible

114
Q

Record Keeping

A

Generate written sequence of conditions before beginning study and testing participant in sequence, good to add basic demographics like date, time, testing, name of experimenter, comments, questions.

115
Q

Pilot Test

A

Small-scale study to ensure procedure works as planned, can be small size but give you confidence that procedure works as planned.

116
Q

Nonexperimental Research

A

Lacks manipulation of independent variable, random assignment , or both

117
Q

When to use nonexperimental

A

When manipulating IV is unethical, impossible, research question may be broad and exploratory, noncausal relationship between variables, single variables.

118
Q

Single-variable research

A

Interest is in a single-variable, answer interesting and important questions, no questions on statistical relationships between variables.

119
Q

Correlational Research

A

Measure two variables of interest and no attempt to control extraneous variables and assess relationship between them. No manipulation of IV, only relation between variables.

120
Q

Quasi-experimental Research

A

Manipulate independent variable yet no random assignment to conditions.

121
Q

Qualitative Research

A

Data are nonnumerical, not analysed with statistical methods, written description.

122
Q

Internal Validity across Methods

A

Highest in Experimental, medium in quasi-experimental with some manipulation, and correlation is the lowest, fails to manipulate or randomly assign conditions.

123
Q

Why Correlational Research?

A

Two reasons: do not believe statistical relationship is causal, and thought to be causal but cannot manipulate independent variable since impossible, impractical, or unethical.

124
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Approach to data collection with behavioural observation, type of field research observing people in environment in which it occurs typically. Observations are unobtrusive, ethically accepted if participants are anonymous, behaviour occurs in public where privacy is not expected.

125
Q

Issues of Naturalistic Observation

A

Sampling: when, who, where, under what conditions are we observing needs to be precise to make data collection manageable for researcher.
Measurement: can be straightforward but behaviour may not be obvious/objective. When it needs a judgment on part of observer it is called coding, a clearly defined set of target behaviours.

126
Q

Archival Data

A

Data already collected for other purpose, measurements are more or less straightforward, content analysis wherein systematic approaches to measurement use complex archival data, specify keywords, phrases, or ideas and finding occurrences in data.

127
Q

Multiple Dependent Variables

A

Possibility of carryover effects arise when experimenter is interested in other dependent variables, can be measured in same order for all participants, counterbalance as well possibly.

128
Q

Manipulation Check

A

Additional measure of IV, confirms independent variable was manipulated successfully, done at end of procedure to ensure effect of manipulation lasted entire procedure.

129
Q

Measure Same Construct

A

Operationally define and measure same construct or closely related ones, when multiple dependent variables are different measures they may be combined into single measure of construct. Generally more reliable, ensure internal consistency is computed with Cronbach’s alpha.

130
Q

Multiple Independent Variables

A

Interaction between variables where level of one IV depends on level of the other IV.

131
Q

Factorial Designs

A

Each level of one IV combined with each level of other IV’s to produce all possible combinations. Shown in factorial design table, if three conditions of one IV and two of other IV then 3x2 factorial design with six conditions. Unmanageable if more than two or three levels for each IV.

132
Q

Between-subjects Factorial Design

A

All IV’s are manipulated between subjects, tested in one condition. Simple, no carry-over effects, and minimizes time and effort on participants.

133
Q

Within-subjects Factorial Design

A

All IV’s are manipulated within subjects, tested in all conditions, more efficient and control over extraneous variables.

134
Q

Mixed Factorial Design

A

Test in all conditions while having some participants tested on IV of one condition instead of both.

135
Q

Nonmanipulated IV’s

A

Measured variables which is not manipulated, commonly participant variables, and are between-subjects factors, experimental so long as one IV is manipulated, causal conclusions only drawn on manipulated IV.

136
Q

Graphing Results of Factorial Experiments

A

Results can be graphed with one IV on x-axis and other with different bars/lines, y-axis for dependent variable.

137
Q

Main Effect

A

Statistical relationship between IV and dependent variable averaging across levels of other independent variables.

138
Q

Interaction

A

Effect of IV depends on level of other IV, crossover interaction where IV for one group changes but then other group has a different change due to IV once again. Typically primary focus of research.

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