Research Methods: Evaluating Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Which research methods are quantitative?
A
- Content analysis
- Questionnaire/Survey
- Structured Interviews
- Official statistics
- Non-official statistics
- Longitudinal studies
2
Q
Which research methods are qualitative?
A
- Unstructured interviews
- Focus groups
- Overt non-participant observations
- Covert non-participant observations
- Overt participant observations
- Covert participant observations
- Ethnography
3
Q
Which research methods are both qualitative and quantitative?
A
- Semi-structured interviews (generally qualitative)
- Secondary data
4
Q
What are questionnaires/surveys?
A
- List of questions subject to self completion. Questions can either open or closed
5
Q
What are the theoretical strengths of questionnaires/surveys?
A
- Standardised questions and the potential to
pre-code data makes this method replicable and therefore more reliable meaning POSITIVISTS would like this method
6
Q
What are the practical strengths of questionnaires/surveys?
A
- Can be distributed to a large geographical area/sample therefore likely to ACCESS the participants required for the research which increases the representativeness of the research as it reflects the characteristics of the target population
7
Q
What are the ethical strengths of questionnaires/surveys?
A
- Due to the fact they are subject to self completion INFORMED CONSENT is given which can increase validity as the participants feel comfortable answering questions meaning they are more likely to be honest and give a true insight into the topic being researched
8
Q
What are the theoretical weaknesses of questionnaires/surveys?
A
- Due to the standardised nature of questions the respondent may select the nearest answer that describes their situation but this may not be fully relevant. The respondents cannot explain meanings behind their answers leading to INTERPRETIVISTS not liking this method as it is low in validity
9
Q
What are the practical weaknesses of questionnaires/surveys?
A
- Questionnaires can be subject to LOW RESPONSE RATES, therefore reducing the overall sample size. This can affect the generalisability of the data as wider claims might not be able to be made about the whole population
10
Q
What are the ethical weaknesses of questionnaires/surveys?
A
- If the topic is of a sensitive nature some respondents may feel some form of emotional HARM and could potentially lie to give socially desirable responses. This can impact on validity as it does not give a true insight
11
Q
What is content analysis?
A
- This is the number of times a sign, symbol, word, picture etc is used within a media text
12
Q
What are the theoretical strengths of content analysis?
A
- Content analysis produces quantitative data and is regarded as reliable as it can be carried out again and data can be cross-checked. Therefore POSITIVISTS will favour this method
13
Q
What are the practical strengths of content analysis?
A
- This is a cheap method to carry out and therefore easy to ACCESS a range of data on the research topic. This will increase the representative of the research as you will be able to collect data that reflects the characteristics of the group you are interested in
14
Q
What are the ethical strengths of content analysis?
A
- No participants are required, therefore meaning that ethical considerations and guidelines set out by the BSA are easy to follow. This means issues surrounding the validity of the research are not a concern as the content can be accurately represented
15
Q
What are the theoretical weaknesses of content analysis?
A
- INTERPRETIVISTS would state that statistics provide little information about human stories or behaviour as no meanings/feelings/opinions are given. This decreases the validity
16
Q
What are the practical weaknesses of content analysis?
A
- This is often a TIME CONSUMING method e.g. watching films to count a sign/symbol/word etc. This means that you cannot collect data on a large amount of content. This can reduce the generalisability of the research as you will not be able to make any wider claims about how a group has been represented based on a small amount of data
17
Q
What are the ethical weaknesses of content analysis?
A
- This can be a subjective approach at times and some sociologists could analyse text out of context. This could cause emotional HARM to the group/s being researched if they are not presented fully/fairly. This will reduce the validity of the research as an accurate insight is not gained.
18
Q
What are structured interviews?
A
- The researcher reads a list of closed questions and ticks boxes of pre-coded responses
19
Q
What are the theoretical strengths of structured interviews?
A
- The use of closed and standardised questions and responses means the data collected is likely to be objective, numerical and therefore this increases reliability as it is replicable. This can also help to ensure that the data has value freedom from researchers’ own biases. These are reasons that POSITIVISTS would like this method
20
Q
What are the practical strengths of structured interviews?
A
- Due to interviews being pre-arranged with the interviewee, you are able to gain ACCESS to the required participants for the research and the response rate is likely to be higher.. This will increase the representative of the research as your sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population
21
Q
What are the ethical strengths of structured interviews?
A
- The interviewer can explain the aims and objectives of the research which should lead the participants to feel more comfortable and rapport can be built up. This encourages INFORMED CONSENT to be given. This can increase the validity of the research as participants are more likely to answer honestly.
22
Q
What are the theoretical weaknesses of structured interviews?
A
- INTERPRETIVISTS would critique this method as they would suggest that it is not suitable when researching sensitive issues. Participants cannot expand on their responses which reduces the validity of the research as a meaningful insight cannot be gained.
23
Q
What are the practical weaknesses of structured interviews?
A
- Interviews can be more TIME CONSUMING than methods such as questionnaires. This means that it can be difficult to access a large sample of participants. This would impact on the generalisability of the research as wider claims cannot be made to all who hold the characteristics being researched
24
Q
What are the ethical weaknesses of structured interviews?
A
- If the questions make the respondent feel uncomfortable this may lead to emotional HARM and SAFEGUARDING issues. Due to the lack of conversational flow participants may not state that they feel uncomfortable and therefore may not feel they have full right to withdraw. This can impact on the way they answer questions as they may lie and give socially desirable responses which will impact on the validity of the research as they may not provide a true insight into their lives
25
What are semi structured interviews?
- The researcher has some set/pre coded questions however they are able to probe respondents and ask extra questions if needed OR some semi-structured interviews have some set themes which are then discussed.
26
What are the theoretical strengths of semi structured interviews?
- INTERPRETIVISTS would like the unstructured elements of the interviews as it can produce data that is more qualitative. The nature of these interviews means that they are flexible. This means that themes can be explored by the interviewer if they find it interesting/relevant to the research aims. The unstructured questions means in-depth data can be gained increasing validity
27
What are the practical strengths of semi structured interviews?
- Due to interviews being pre-arranged with the interviewee, you are able to gain ACCESS to the required participants for the research and the response rate is likely to be higher. This will increase the representativeness of the research as your sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population.
28
What are the ethical strengths of semi structured interviews?
- These interviews have more chance for rapport to be built up than in a structured interview.This encourages INFORMED CONSENT to be given. This can allow for more empathy and understanding of sensitive topics being discussed by the participant. This could lead to them being better safeguarded and therefore potentially feeling more comfortable to answer honestly which increases the validity.
29
What are the theoretical weaknesses or semi structured interviews?
- POSITIVISTS would not like the flexibility of this method and would argue that if rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore impacting on the reliability of the research data and findings, as it makes it difficult to replicate
30
What are the practical weaknesses of semi structured interviews?
- Interviews can be more TIME CONSUMING. This means that it can be difficult to access a large sample of participants. This would impact on the generalisability of the research as wider claims cannot be made to all who hold the characteristics being researched.
31
What are the ethical weaknesses of semi structured interviews?
- If the questions make the respondent feel uncomfortable this may lead to emotional HARM and SAFEGUARDING issues. This can decrease the validity of the research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses. Interviewer effect can also lead to this.
32
What are unstructured interviews?
- The researcher may have some themes to cover but no pre-determined questions or rigid themes that they should follow. These interviews take a conversational flow.
33
What are the theoretical strengths of unstructured interviews?
- This method leads to lots of in-depth data collection as the interviewer can probe and ask extra questions. Rapport and verstehen can also be built. This dramatically increases the validity meaning INTERPRETIVISTS would like this method.
34
What are the practical strengths of unstructured interviews?
- Due to interviews being pre-arranged with the interviewee, you are able to gain ACCESS to the required participants for the research and the response rate is likely to be higher. This will increase the representativeness of the research as your sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population
35
What are the ethical strengths of unstructured interviews?
- INFORMED CONSENT will be given and participants can build rapport can be built between the researcher and participant meaning that a conversational flow can occur meaning they would not feel emotional HARM. This means the participants are generally more comfortable, meaning they will answer honestly which increases the validity
36
What are the theoretical weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
- POSITIVISTS would not like the lack of structure of this method and would argue that if rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore impacting on the reliability of the research data and findings, as it becomes difficult to replicate
37
What are the practical weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
- Interviews can be TIME CONSUMING so only a small sample is gathered. This decreases the generalisability as wider claims cannot be made
38
What are the ethical weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
- If the questions make the respondent feel uncomfortable this may lead to emotional HARM and SAFEGUARDING issues. This can decrease the validity of the research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses. Interviewer effect can also lead to this
39
What are focus group interviews?
- Focus Group - An unstructured interview directed to a group of respondents who are encourage to discuss with each other. The interviewer will set up themes and questions and manage the responses from participants
- Group Interviews - Are often set up with a researcher and a panel of participants - The presence of another participant can be seen as less threatening, therefore meaning they feel more comfortable to participate.
40
What are the theoretical strengths of focus group interviews?
- INTERPRETIVISTS would favour this method as rich and in-depth discussions are encouraged. The questions and themes set out will be tailored to specific group needs creating a relaxed and informal setting which increases validity as the participants feel more comfortable to answer honestly
41
What are the practical strengths of focus group interviews?
- Due to the focus groups being pre-arranged with the respondents, you are able to gain ACCESS to the required participants for the research and the response rate is likely to be higher. This will increase the representativeness of the research as your sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population.
42
What are the ethical strengths of focus group interviews?
- INFORMED CONSENT will be given and participants can build rapport can be built up with the participants, meaning they would not feel emotional HARM due to the relaxed environment. This means that the respondents will again provide more rich and valid data.
43
What are the theoretical weaknesses of focus group interviews?
- If rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity. This will reduce the reliability as it will be difficult to replicate the study in the same way. As a result, POSITIVISTS will not like this method
44
What are the practical weaknesses of focus group interviews?
- Data recording and analysis can be difficult and TIME CONSUMING as all respondents will give varying accounts and opinions on the topics being discussed therefore sample size is likely to be small which will reduce the generalisability of the results as wider claims cannot be made about the whole population based on a small group of people.
45
What are the ethical weaknesses of focus group interviews?
- Respondents may feel uncomfortable if sensitive topics arise or if other respondents dominate the discussions. This could lead to others feeling uncomfortable, in some extreme cases they may also suffer emotional HARM, therefore meaning that they do not input as they naturally would which decreases the validity.
46
What is an ethnography?
- An in-depth study of a particular group or topic- term normally used to describe Qualitative data like Observations
47
What is a gatekeeper?
- The person or persons who provide the sociologists with access to those they wish to research
48
What is going native?
- When a researcher becomes so involved with the group they are studying they lose objectivity and research loses validity
49
What is a field diary?
- Notes that are taken whilst conducting observations – ‘in the field’
50
What is the Hawthorne effect?
- Refers to when those being studied change their behaviour because they know they are being watched, thus reducing the validity of the research. Associated with Overt research
51
What is overt non participant observation?
- The participants know they are being studied but the researcher is NOT involved with the group being researched
- GENERALLY NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS COLLECT QUALITATIVE DATA UNLESS THE BEHAVIOUR IS PRE-CODED / TALLIED UP
52
What are the theoretical strengths of overt non participant observation?
- INTERPRETIVISTS would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight can be gained which increases validity
53
What are the practical strengths of overt non participant observations?
- The researcher is not involved in the group meaning that it is a fairly easy and cost effective method. As a result the researcher may be able to ACCESS more people to observe which can increase the representative and generalisability of the research
54
What are the ethical strengths of overt non participant observations?
- As the participants know they are being observed, INFORMED CONSENT is likely to be gained, this increases the validity as the participants will be more informed and should feel more comfortable to behave normally
55
What are the theoretical weaknesses of overt non participant observations?
- POSITIVISTS would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate, especially if there isn’t a coding scheme, meaning that reliability is reduced
56
What are the practical weaknesses of overt non participant observation?
- Observations can be fairly TIME CONSUMING and therefore the researcher may not be able to carry out as many observations. As a result, this can reduce the generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on a small number of observations
57
What are the ethical weaknesses of overt non participant observations?
- Empathy and understanding may be reduced if the participants feel uncomfortable being observed. They may not display their true behaviour and could feel some form of emotional HARM if they feel this way. This reduces the validity of the findings as behaviour may not be natural and they may demonstrate social desirability
58
What are covert non participant observations?
- The researcher is NOT fully participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied
- GENERALLY NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS COLLECT QUALITATIVE DATA UNLESS THE BEHAVIOUR IS PRE-CODED / TALLIED UP
59
What are the theoretical strengths of covert non participant observations?
- INTERPRETIVISTS would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight is gained which increases validity
60
What are the practical strengths of covert non participant observation?
- The researcher is not involved in the group meaning that it is a fairly easy and cost effective method. As a result the researcher may be able to ACCESS more people to observe which can increase the representative and generalisability of the research
61
What are the ethical strengths of covert non participant observation?
- The researcher is unlikely to influence the group studied. Also they are at less risk of HARM if they are not fully involved in the group. Therefore the group is less likely to change their behaviour increasing the validity of the data collected.
62
What are the theoretical weaknesses of covert non participant observation?
- The research would be hard to replicate reducing reliability. POSITIVISTS would not like this method as a result of this.
63
What are the practical weaknesses of covert non participant observation?
- Observations can be fairly TIME CONSUMING and therefore the researcher may not be able to carry out as many observations. As a result, this can reduce the generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on a small number of observations
64
What are the ethical weaknesses of covert non participant observation?
- This method holds real ethical issues as no INFORMED CONSENT can be given if the participants do not know they are being observed. As a result, the researcher could hold prejudices/biases towards the group which could reduce the validity of the research
65
What is overt participant observation?
- The participants know they are being studied and the researcher is fully involved with the group being researched
66
What are the theoretical strengths of overt participant observation?
- INTERPRETIVISTS would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight can be gained which increases validity.
67
What are the practical strengths of overt participant observation?
- As the participants know that they are being
observed and the researcher is part of the observation, they may be able to gain ACCESS to more participants through discussion. This can increase the representative and generalisability of the research
68
What are the ethical strengths of overt participant observation?
- The researcher can be fully immersed in the group to be studied and experience verstehen / understanding. This can mean that a really true insight into groups can be gained. As the participants know they are being researched, BSA ethical guidelines are followed and INFORMED CONSENT is likely to be gained, this increases the validity as the participants will be more informed and should feel more comfortable
69
What are the theoretical weaknesses of overt participant observation?
- POSITIVISTS would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate, especially if there isn’t a coding scheme, meaning that reliability is reduced
70
What are the practical weaknesses of overt participant observation?
- Observations can be fairly TIME CONSUMING and therefore the researcher may not be able to carry out as many observations. As a result, this can reduce the generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on a small number of observations
71
What are the ethical weaknesses of overt participant observation?
- Participants may feel uncomfortable being observed and this could lead to emotional HARM. They may treat the researcher as an outsider therefore this would reduce validity as they may not act naturally and display social desirability.
- By being immersed in the group the researcher has the potential to be at risk of HARM (depending on the group being researched) also they could become too involved meaning they present the group with bias which reduces the validity of the findings
72
What is covert participant observation?
- The researcher is participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied
73
What are the theoretical strengths of covert participant observation?
- INTERPRETIVISTS would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight is gained which increases validity
74
What are the practical strengths of covert participant observation?
- As the researcher is part of the observation, they may be able to gain ACCESS to more participants through discussion. This can increase the representative and generalisability of the research.
75
What are the ethical strengths of covert participant observation?
- The researcher can be fully immersed in the group to be studied and experience verstehen / understanding. This can mean that a really true insight into groups can be gained. This increases the validity as the researcher will have the opportunity to build up a rapport meaning the participants should feel more comfortable to act naturally. This leads to less risk of emotional HARM.
76
What are the theoretical weaknesses of covert participant observation?
- The research would be hard to replicate reducing reliability. POSITIVISTS would not like this method as a result of this
77
What are the practical weaknesses of covert participant observation?
- Observations can be fairly TIME CONSUMING and therefore the researcher may not be able to carry out as many observations. As a result, this can reduce the generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on a small number of observations.
78
What are the ethical weaknesses of covert participant observation?
- This method holds real ethical issues as no INFORMED CONSENT can be given if the participants do not know they are being observed. As a result, the researcher could hold prejudices/biases towards the group which could reduce the validity of the research. There is also a higher possibility of ‘going native’ or losing objectivity decreasing validity
79
What is an ethnography?
- Involves the researching immersing themselves into the natural setting of the social group being studied, and participating in and observing their daily activities
80
What are the theoretical strengths of ethnography?
- Ethnographic research is preferred by INTERPRETIVISTS sociologists as rapport can be built and verstehen can be gained which allows the researcher to access the ‘lived experience’ of particular social groups which increases validity as a true insight is gained
81
What are the practical strengths of ethnography?
- By immersing yourself with the group, you can gain ACCESS to a range of participants. This will increase the representativeness of the research as your sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population
82
What are the ethical strengths of ethnography?
- Allows the researcher to gain INFORMED CONSENT from participants. This increases validity as the participants feel comfortable answering questions meaning they are more likely to be honest.
83
What are the theoretical weaknesses of ethnography?
- POSITIVISTS do not favour this type of research because quantitative data is not gained and therefore it will not be objective, or replicable which will decrease the reliability.
84
What are the practical weaknesses of ethnography?
- A good ethnographic research study will require a huge investment in the researcher's TIME, this means a small sample can only be researched which can decrease the generalisability of the research as wider claims cannot be made about the whole population
85
What are the ethical weaknesses of ethnography?
- If sensitive topics are covered within the research, it may cause emotional HARM as participants may not feel comfortable to respond honestly. This will reduce the validity of the research.
- Additionally if the participants are deemed as vulnerable (e.g under 18/ elderly) this could be a SAFEGUARDING ISSUES issue. They may not feel comfortable to respond honestly. This will reduce the validity of the research.
- As the researcher is immersed in the group - This type of research can be HAMRFULfor the researcher as they can put themselves in dangerous situation, e.g. when researching gang culture. Also they may go native or lose objectivity if they become too involved. This will decrease the validity as a true insight may not be shown
86
What is official statistics?
- Quantitative data collected by the government which is often gathered through other research methods such as questionnaires. Two of the biggest sources of official statistics come from the Office for National Statistics
and the Census
87
What are the theoretical strengths of official statistics?
- POSITIVISTS like this method of data collection as it is very objective and has been collected in a systematic, scientific and standardised way increasing reliability as it can be replicated easily
88
What are the practical strengths of official statistics?
- As it is not a TIME CONSUMING method, a large
representative sample can be accessed which can increase the generalisability of the method
89
What are the ethical strengths of official statistics?
- As official statistics are secondary data, following ethical guidelines is not an issue as the research has already been done. The data also tends to be gathered by the government in the form of questionnaires which are likely to be ANONYMOUS. Therefore responses are likely to be honest which increases the validity
90
What are the theoretical weaknesses of official statistics?
- Statistics are quantitative, and tell us nothing about the stories behind the statistics, INTERPRETIVISTS and feminists would therefore not like this method as a result. They would state that the research is low in validity as no verstehen can be gained.
91
What are the practical weaknesses of official statistics?
- They may not fully represent the whole picture of what is being researched as although data can be collected from a large sample, RESPONSE RATE CAN BE LOW and this can reduce the generalisability of the research as wider claims cannot be made about the whole population.
92
What are the ethical weaknesses of official statistics?
- Official statistics are open to political abuse, which can be manipulated to look better, for instance to give a good impression of the government's economic policies. They could also lead to HARM as some groups may be misrepresented. This means the validity of the data is reduced.
93
What is longitudinal studies?
- Research designed to collect data on a sample (of people/documents) on at least two occasions.
- GENERALLY LONGITUDINAL STUDIES AIM TO GENERATE TRENDS AND PATTERNS MEANING IT IS QUANTITATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC BUT SOMETIMES IT CAN CONSIST OF QUALITATIVE METHODS
94
What are the theoretical strengths of longitudinal studies?
- POSITIVISTS favour the statistical/numerical data that is used and the trends that are gained and would state that this increases the reliability of the data, meaning the same or similar results can be achieved each time
95
What are the practical strengths of longitudinal studies?
- The lengthy time spent researching means that it may enable good ACCESS to a wider range of participants as time goes on.
96
What are the ethical strengths of longitudinal studies?
- Regular contact with the sample can create trust and rapport increasing validity as they will feel more comfortable (and less risk of emotional HARM) leading to more honest responses
97
What are the theoretical weaknesses of longitudinal studies?
- INTERPRETIVISTS would be less likely to use longitudinal research because it often provides quantitative data to assess patterns and trends which is low in validity as deeper explanations are not gained.
98
What are the practical weaknesses of longitudinal studies?
- HIGH ‘DROP-OUT’ RATE and obviously a TIME CONSUMING METHOD - Participants may get bored, move address, school and change friendship groups. Tracking the sample can be complex and the sample size may be reduced, which reduces the generalisability of the research
99
What are the ethical weaknesses of longitudinal studies?
– If the research is of a sensitive nature, it could lead to EMOTIONAL HARM for participants if they are required to readdress issues surrounding inequality over a long period of time. Participants may change their answer or withhold information which could reduce the validity of the research
100
What is secondary data?
- This is data that has been carried out by someone else / an institution.
- SOMETIMES THIS CAN BE QUANTITATIVE E.G. GOVERNMENT STATISTICS HOWEVER IF IT RESEARCH CARRIED OUT BY A SOCIOLOGIST WHO HAS USED QUALITATIVE METHODS IT COULD REFER TO QUALITATIVE METHODS
101
What are the theoretical strengths of secondary data?
- Positivists favour the statistical/numerical data that is used and state that this increases the reliability of the data, meaning the same or similar results can be achieved each time.
102
What are the practical strengths of secondary data?
- This method is extremely cheap and easy to access and are usually up to date. This means that this method is reliable as its scientific and objective nature makes it replicable
103
What are the ethical strengths of secondary data?
- No participants are required, therefore meaning that ethical considerations and guidelines set out by the BSA are easy to follow. This can again increase the reliability as this method is easily replicable
104
What are the theoretical weaknesses of secondary data?
- Interprestivists would state that statistics provide little information about human stories or behaviour as no meanings/feelings/opinions are given. This decreases the validity.
105
What are the practical weaknesses of secondary data?
- Statistics can show trends and patterns but not deeper explanations about why correlations are this way meaning that validity is reduced. This is because an honest insight into the social reality isn’t gained
106
What are the ethical weaknesses of secondary data?
- Statistics are open to ‘political abuse’ meaning that they can be manipulated incorrectly. This means that the group/s being researched are not presented fully/fairly. This impacts on the validity of the data and may cause some involved harm. Also the researcher has not had control over how this data was collated - The participants may have suffered regarding ethical issues
