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Psychology Paper 2 > Research Methods Booklet 2 > Flashcards

Research Methods Booklet 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a positive correlation

A

As one co variable increases so does the other

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2
Q

What is a negative correlation

A

As one co variable increases the other decreases

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3
Q

What is zero correlation

A

No relationship between the co variables

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4
Q

What is the correlation coefficient

A

A numerical measure of strength and direction of the relationship between the co variables always a number between -1 and 1 the stronger the relationship is if there is 0- no relationship.

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5
Q

What will the graph look like if there is a strong correlation

A

The points on the graph will be plotted closer together

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6
Q

What strength would +1 be

A

Strong positive correlation

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7
Q

What would 0 to -0.5 be

A

Weak negative correlation

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8
Q

What to include when writing a correlational hypothesis

A

Must include both variables that the correlation is testing and be fully operationalised
Never use difference, effect or link

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9
Q

What to include in a directional correlational hypothesis

A

State if the correlation is positive or negative

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10
Q

What to include in a non directional correlational hypothesis

A

Must state there is a relationship/correlation but no direction is stated

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11
Q

What to include in a null correlational hypothesis

A

State there will be no relationship/correlation

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12
Q

Strengths of correlations

A
  • used as initial research to see if Theres a relationship before a full experiment talked place, useful starting point for research and more ethical than an experiment (no manipulation)
  • quick and economical to carry out- use secondary data
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13
Q

Limitations of correlations

A

Cannot establish cause and effect they can only tell us how variables and related not why.
-another untested variable could cause the relationship that we are interested in- third variable problem.

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14
Q

3 differences between experiments and correlations

A

Experiments have an IV/DV- researcher manipulates IV to see affects on DV. Correlations dont- co variables no manipulation on IV.

Experiments establish cause and affect- how IV affects DV. Correlations don’t as no manipulation.

Experiments can and sometimes can’t control extraneous variables. Correlations do not(third variable problem)

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15
Q

Characteristics of case studies

A

In depth analysis of an individual group or event.
Involve analysis of unusual individuals or events.
Collect qualitative data: interviews, observations, questionnaires
Longitudinal in nature- long period of time

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16
Q

Strengths of case studies

A

Offer rich detailed insights into behaviour- qualitative data
Enhances our knowledge of unusual behaviours in the persons natural environments- increases ecological vadiloity

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17
Q

Limitations of case studies

A

Only one person is part therefore it can be difficult to generalise findings to the wider population.
Personal accounts can be prone to unnacuracy and memory delay

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18
Q

What is content analysis

A

Research technique that enables indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce e.g texts emails and other media.

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19
Q

Aim of content analysis

A

Summarise and describe these communications using quantitative data so that overall conclusions can be made

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20
Q

How to conducts a content analysis

A

Coding-
1 decide on pre determined categories(codes) to look out for in the media.
2. Tally each time a behaviour appears for each category
3. Draw conclusions from the categories which could involve comparing different groups

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21
Q

How to gather thematic analysis

A
  1. Analyse media/communication
  2. Note emergent themes as they arise
    3.draw conclusions
    Not about pre detrimined categories
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22
Q

Strengths of content analysis

A

‘Get around’ many of the ethical issues associated with psychological research
Many materials already exists within the public domain therefore there are fewer issues with obtaining permission.

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23
Q

Limitations of content analysis

A

People are studied indirectly so communication they produce is usually analysed out of the context within which it occurred.
Lack of objectivity, with the researcher attributing opinions and motivations to the speaker/writer which were not intended originally

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24
Q

Quantitative data evaluation

A

This is data that is numerical or can be turned into number form
Strengths- easy to analyse Put into graphs and identify patterns and trends and more objective- less bias
Limitations- limited detail in responses decreasing insight into results- lowers internal vadiloty

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25
Qualitative data evaluation
Data that is descriptive in depth and detailed Strengths- lots of detail which increases insight and increases internal vadility Limitations- harder to analyse and put into graphs to identify patters and less objective and more open to bias
26
What is primary data
Info that has been obtained first hand by a researcher for the purpose of the research
27
What is secondary data
Information that has already been collected by someone else;she and so pre dates current research project
28
Strengths and limitations of primary data
Fits purpose- S L- time consuming
29
Strengths and limitations of secondary data
S- less time consuming- not collecting themselves L- outdated- not match researchers needs
30
What are pilot studies
Small scale version of an investigation before real one is conducted- make sure all works Can make changed or modifications Saves money and time
31
Why would pilot studies be used for experiments
Check materials that are used are relevant and that IV and DV are fully operationalised to the study to replicate on a larger scale
32
Why would pilot studies be used for an observation
Check suitability of the behavioural categories e.g check all observers interpret them in the same way and understand them
33
Why would pilot studies be used for a self report
Used to check participants can understand the questions in the questionnaire/interveiw and ones that are ambiguous or confusing can be altered for the actual one
34
What is meta-analysis
Form of research method that uses secondary data. Number of studies are identified which have investigated same aim/hypothesis. Results can be pooled together and a joint conclusion produced.
35
Strengths of meta analysis
Create larger, more varied sample and results can be generalised across larger target population
36
limitations of meta analysis
Prone to publication bias. May not select relevant studies. So biased because only represent some relevant data
37
Strengths and limitations of mean
Strengths- includes all values- represents data set Limitations-less quick to calculate and distorted by extreme values
38
Strengths and limitations of median
Strengths- not affected by extreme values Limitation- doesn’t include all data only middle so less representative
39
Strengths and limitations of mode
Strengths-can’t be distorted by extreme values, easy to calculate Limitation- doesn’t include all numbers- less representative
40
What are the measures of central tendency
Mean median mode
41
What are the measures of dispersion
Range standard deviation
42
What does standard deviation tell us
How far scores deviate from the mean Larger the SD the greater dispersion within a set of data- inconsistent The lower the SD- tightly clustered- similar results- consistent
43
Strengths and limitations of the range
Strengths- easy to calculate- simple formula compared to SD Limitations-does not account for distribution of the scores- only lowest and highest values included- not indicate whether spread out or close to mean Affected by extreme values
44
Strengths and limitations of standard deviation
Strengths- more precise measure of dispersion than the range- includes all values within final calculation Limitations- bc all values are included- SD can be distorted by extreme values
45
What are the 2 ways to present quantative data
Tables Graphs
46
What to include in graphs
Choose appropriate graph (bar, histogram, scatter) Labelling axis Drawing to appropriate scale Writing a title
47
When do we use bar charts
Data that shows different groups in reasearch-discrete data Each displayed by own bar
48
When do we use histograms
Display data that is continuous on both axis As both axes are frequencies- no gap
49
When do we use scatter graphs
Display correlational data- no line of best fit Interpret strength and direction of the relationship between two co variables Both sets of data- continuous
50
What format should be followed when submitting work to be published
Abstract (summary of study) Introduction (literature review) Method (detailed enough for replication) Results(a summary of key findings) Discussion(evaluating the outcome)
51
What to include in the abstract
A short summary (15-200 words) that includes all of the major elements of the study: aims, hypotheses, method/procedure, results and conclusions
52
What to include in the introduction of reporting psychological investigations
Relevant theories, concepts and studies Research review should follow logical progression - beginning broadly and becoming more specific until the aims and hypotheses are presented.
53
What to include in the method of reporting psychological investigations
Design and justifications for the choice Sample e.g how many, sampling method and target population Apparatus/material Procedure- list of what has happened- standardised instructions and debriefing Ethics- how these were addressed within the study
54
What to include in the results of reporting psychological investigations
Descriptive statistics e.g tables, graphs Inferential statistics e.g choice of statistical test, level of significance and final outcome
55
What to include in the discussion of reporting psychological investigations
Summary of findings in written format Relationship of results to previous research Limitations of study and how these might be addressed in future Wider real world implications of the research
56
Referencing format of a book
Authors (surname, initials), date, title of book, place of publication, publisher
57
Referencing format of a journal article
Author (surname, initials), date, article title, journal name, volume (issue), page numbers
58
Referencing format of a website
Source, data, title, weblink, data accessed
59
Two reasons its important for scientific reports to include a referencing section
Gives credit to other researchers Enables other people to find the sources used
60
What is peer review
Before publication all aspects of the investigation are scrutinised by experts in the same field
61
Aims of peer review
To reduce chances of flawed/unscientific research being published and treated as a ‘fact’ and misinforming the public. Increases the credibility and status of the subject To improve quality of published reports by suggesting amendments or improvements of the study
62
Limitations of the peer review process
Anonymity- a minority of researchers may use their anonymous status to criticise rival researchers this could be due to a competition for limited funding. Publication bias- editors of journals want to publish ‘headline grabbing’ findings so research that does not meet this is ignored- no significant results. Ground breaking research may be buried- reviewers may be more critical of research that contradicts their own view. This may slow down the rate of change within scientific disciplines
63
What is reliability
Refers to the consistency of findings from an investigation or measuring tool. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results each time it is used.
64
What are the ways of assessing reliability
Test-retest reliability Inter-observer reliability
65
What is test-retest reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test The same person is assessed on two separate occasions The two sets of scores are correlated to make sure similar Shows to what extent the test produces same answers and is reliable If correlation is significant (and positive) then the reliability of the measuring instrument is assumed to be good
66
What is inter-observer relibilty
The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observation of behaviour. This is to check that observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way If the correlation between observers is +0.80 then data has a high interobserver reliabiloty
67
How to improve reliability in questionnaires
One that produces low test- retest reliability may need to questions de selected or written The researcher may replace some open questions (interpreted inconsistently) with closed questions that are less ambigious
68
How to improve reliability in interviews
Use same interviewer each time and if not possible all interviewers must be trained so they ask the same questions in the same way
69
How to improve reliability in observations
Behavioural categories should be operationalised and measurable so they are less open to interpretation. If the above does not happen different observers have to use their own judgement in deciding what to record and may end up with inconsistent results.
70
How to improve reliabiloty in experiments
To compare the performance of different participants the procedures must be the same each time therefore standardised procedures should be used.
71
What is vadility
Refers to whether an observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually out there in the real word- LEGITIMACY of results
72
What are the different types of vadility
Internal and external
73
What is internal vadility and how is it increased
Refers to how well a study has measured what it sets out to measure at the start of the research It’s increased if there is a lot of control implemented in the procedure- allows researcher to simply measure what they set out to in their aim.
74
What is external vadility
The extent to which the finding of a study can be generalised to factors outside of the research
75
What are the two types of external vadility
Ecological- refers to whether the task and/or the setting reflects real life situations and can therefore be generalised to the real world Temporal- refers to the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras.
76
Ways of assessing vadility
Face vadility Concurrent vadility
77
What is face vadility
Extent which something looks as if it will measure what it is supposed to measure- can check with other people to look
78
What is concurrent vadility
Extent which a test correlates well with a measure of the same thing that has been previously validated- compare results of new measure with a previously validated measure
79
How to improve vadility in an experiment
Having a controlled procedure means researcher us mire certain that the changed in the DV were due to the affect of the IV. Controls could include: a control group, single/double blind procedure, randomisation
80
How to improve vadility of questionnaires
Filler questions can control for the effect of social desirability bias If respondents know their data is confidential they are more likely to be thruthful
81
How to improve vadility of observations
Behavioural categories should be well defined and thoroughly operationalised to reflect the behaviours being measured
82
Possible extraneous variables
Temperature, age, noise, gender, amount of sleep

Psychology Paper 2 (4 decks)

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