Research Methods AO1 (Experimental Method- Sampling) Flashcards
Define ‘ The Experimental Method’
Where the researcher manipulates variables to measure a cause and effect relationship
What is a Research Aim?
A general statement about what the researcher plans to investigate ( Some studies can have more than one aim )
What is an independant variable?
The variable that is changed/ manipulated
What is a dependant variable?
The variable that is measured
What does it mean to operationalise your variables?
You must be precise and clear about what is being manipulated/ measured
EXAMPLE- Identify the IV and DV
Male participants will throw a rugby ball further than female participants
IV= Whether the participant is male or female
DV= How far the rugby ball is thrown in meters
What is a hypothesis?
A precise and testable statement of the relationship between two variables and it must be a statement and not a question or prediction
What is a directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis that states the precise direction the results will go
What is a non- directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis where it is stated there will be a difference between the variables but the answer is not clear
When should a directional hypothesis be used?
When previous research into a topic suggests a particular outcome and all the previous research agrees
When should a non- directional hypothesis be used?
If there is limited or no previous research, or the previous research contradicts itself
What is a Laboratory Experiment?
When the experiment is carried out in a well-controlled artificial environment e.g. lab or well controlled classroom
What are the strengths of a Laboratory Experiment?
- Can ensure no EV’s effect the study
- Control over EV’s and CV’s mean any effects on the dependent variable are due to IV manipulation
- Replication possible because of controlled environment
What are the limitations of the Laboratory Experiment?
- May lack generability as the setting is artificial and participants could behave different because of the setting
- Participants are aware they are being tested in an experiment leading to unnatural behavior
- High chance of demand characteristics
What is a Field Experiment?
The experiment takes place in a natural, everyday setting e.g. going to the participants usual setting
What are the strengths of a Field Experiment?
- Higher mundane realism because environment is more natural
- May produce more valid behavior
- Participants could be unaware of study
What are the limitations of a Field Experiment?
- There is less control over EV’s and CV’s meaning there is less cause and effect
- Cannot control variables
- Study is almost impossible to replicate
What is a Natural Experiment?
An experiment which can occur in the lab or the field but the researcher has no control over the IV and cannot change it e.g those who have been in an earthquake and those who haven’t
What is the definition of reliability?
A measure of whether something stays the same
What is the definition of the Test- Retest Method?
Assesses the consistency of a test and measures stability- if the test is conducted again the same answers will be found
What is the definition of the Inter- Observer Reliability?
More than one researcher completes a task to see if the other is measuring the behavior correctly
What is the definition of Validity?
Whether a measure actually measures what we think we are measuring
What is the definition of Internal Validity?
A measure of whether results obtained are solely affected by changes in the variable being manipulated
What is the definition of External Validity?
Measure of whether data can be generalised to other situations outside the research area
What is the definition of Face Validity?
If it appears/ looks like the measure or result is right
What is the definition of Concurrent Validity?
Whether a measure is in agreement with pre- existing meaures
What is the definition of Ecological Validity?
Whether data is generalisable to the real world based on conditions
What is the definition of Temporal Validity?
Whether findings can be applied to different time periods
What are participant variables?
Characteristics of an individual that may affect the study e.g. gender, IQ and age
What are situational variables?
Features of environments that affect behavior e.g. noise, weather and temperature
What are extraneous variables?
Any variable other than the IV that affects the DV
What are demand characteristics?
These are cues which gave away the aim of the investigation. They allow the participant to guess what is expected of them and can lead to them changing their behavior
What is standardisation and how do researchers do this?
Standardisation is using exactly the same procedure and instructions for all participants. Researchers do this to write down instructions and read it word for word
What is a pilot study and why is it carried out?
A small scale trial run of investigation before real one takes place
Why is it carried out and what kind of things do you do in a pilot study?
It is carried out to check procedures and methods to make sure they work. In a pilot study we identify flaws and make changed if necessary ( saves time and money in the long run)
What is the single-blind technique?
When the participants are not told some information e.g. conditions
What is the double- blind technique?
When participants AND the researcher are not aware of the aims or methods
What is randomisation?
Using chance methods when designing study material and who will go in each condition e.g. names in a hat
Why are there ethical guidelines in psychology?
To provide an outline of the rules researchers must follow
Who created the ethical guidelines?
The BPS ( British Psychological Society )
What are the 7 ethical guidelines?
-Consent
-Deception
-Debriefing
-Withdrawal from the Investigation
-Confidentiality
-Protection of Participants
-Observational Research
What are the guidelines for consent?
The researcher must inform the participant of the aims, aspects and methods of the experiment. If under 16s are involved there must be parental consent. Usually participants must sign a consent form.
What are the guidelines for deception?
Misleading information or withholding information is unacceptable. Sometimes deception is vital for experiments to reduce demand characteristics but it should be avoided whenever possible.
What are the guidelines for debriefing?
In studies participants aware they are apart of observation they must be debriefed at the end and informed of all the necessary information .
What are the guidelines for withdrawal from the participants?
Participants must be told they have the right to withdrawal at any point and must be told this repeatedly over the course of the study
What are the guidelines for confidentiality?
The information obtained about a participants must be kept confidential unless agreed with in advance. Normally, numbers or initials are used
What are the guidelines for protection of participants?
Participants must be protected by physical or mental harm during the experiment and harm must be no greater than in ordinary life. Mental and physical harm includes stress, embarrassment, anxiousness and physical injuries
What are the guidelines for observational research?
Studies based on research must be in places where participants expect to be observed e.g. public space or public transport. The privacy and well being must be respected for participants.
How do we deal with consent?
- Should be issued a consent form with all relevant information affecting their decision
- Other ways of consent include presumptive consent, retrospective and non-general consent
How do we deal with deception?
- At the end of the study there should be a debriefed and the participants should be aware of the true aims
-At the end should be given another option to withdraw
How do we deal with protection of participants?
- Participants should be assured that their behavior was normal
- In extreme cases counselling should be provided
How do we deal with confidentiality?
-Participants should be referred to by a number or initials
-Reminded that their data will be protected
What is quantitative data?
-Number and closed questions e.g. yes or no
- Milgram study is an example ( they measured how many volts are reached)
What is qualitative data?
-Words and detailed and descriptive data
-open questions
-Variety of answers
-Zimbardo is an example (How far participants conformed to roles)
What is primary data?
-Information collected firsthand by the researcher specifically for the investigation
What is secondary data?
Information already collected by someone else and exists before the study is conducted e.g. from a website, book or article
What is Nominal Data?
-Most basic information
-Categorical
-Discreet which means one item can only appear in one category
What is Ordinal Data?
-Data that can be ordered or ranked
- Intervals between ranks are not standardized
What is Interval Data?
- Can be ordered
-Standardized intervals between each unit
-Based on numerical scale (precisely defined sizes)
What type of graphs can appear?
-Bar charts
- Histograms
-Line Graphs
-Scatter graphs
Graphs Information
- Bar charts
-Used for nominal data
-Used when data is discrete and can be divided into categories
-Bars should not touch
-Should include a title, labels on the axis and plotted data correctly
2.Histograms
- Used for continuous data
- Bars should touch each other
- X-axis should have equal sized intervals of data
- Y-axis is the frequency
- Line Graphs
- Also involves continuous data
-Often used to show how something changes e.g. over time
What are descriptive statistics?
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data
What does measures of central tendency mean?
The measure of a ‘central’ value in a set of data
What is the mean and its advantages and disadvantages?
Mean: Calculated by taking the sum of all scores and dividing this by the number of scores
Disadvantage: Easily distorted by extreme values/ outliers
Advantages: The most sensitive measure of central tendency because it uses all of the data + most representative measure
What is the median and its advantages and disadvantages?
Median: Calculated by taking the middle score when all scores have been ordered from smallest to largest
Disadvantage: Less sensitive than the mean as the actual values of higher and lower numbers are ignored
Advantages: No effect from extreme outliers/ scores
What is the mode and its advantages and disadvantages?
Mode: Calculated by taking the most frequently occurring score or scores from the set of scores
Disadvantages: Not useful if there are several different modes
Advantages: Good choice when you have nominal data (only time you would choose to use this method)
What does measures of dispersion mean?
The spread or variation in a set of scores
What is the range and its advantages and disadvantages?
Range: Calculated by subtracting the smallest number in a set of scores from the largest number in the same set
Disadvantages: Affected by outliers + Only takes into account the most extreme values in the set of data so may be unrepresentative of the data on a whole
Advantages: Quick and easy to calculate
What is standard deviation and its advantages and disadvantages?
Standard Deviation: Calculated by taking the average that score deviates from the mean in a set of scores
Disadvantages: It is distorted by extreme values
Advantages: Precise measure as it uses all of the data + More representative compared to the mean and tells us how reliable
REMINDER
- For the mean, mode, median and range you could be asked to calculate from raw data
-For standard deviation you will not be asked to calculate only interpret it
REMINDER
- For the mean, mode, median and range you could be asked to calculate from raw data
-For standard deviation you will not be asked to calculate only interpret it
What is a target population?
The group of people the researcher is interested in studying and also where the researcher gets their sample from
What is a sample?
A smaller group selected from the target population used in the study. It must be representative of the whole target population
What does generalise mean?
Being able to apply the findings to people outside the study
What is a random sample and how do you do it?
A random sample is when all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected. In order to do this you must get a list of all members of the target population and put into a random generator or into a hat
What are the strengths or weaknesses of a random sample?
Strengths
-Potentially unbiased meaning affecting confounding or extraneous variables are equally divided (increased internal validity)
-No researcher bias
Limitations
-Difficult and time consuming and a complete list can be hard to obtain
-Could still produce an unrepresentative sample
What is an opportunity sample and how do you do it?
An oppourtunity sample is when the researcher selects anyone who is willing and available. In order to do this the researcher asks whoever is around at the time of the study
What are the strengths and limitations of an opportunity sample?
Strengths
- Convenient and less costly in time and money
Limitations
- Unrepresentative as is drawn from a very specific area
-Researcher has control over who they ask and could avoid some people (researcher bias)
What is a volunteer sample and how do you do it?
A volunteer sample is when participants select themselves to take part. In order to do it you place an advert e.g. a newspaper or in a common room, or even online
What are the strengths and limitations of a volunteer sample?
Strengths
-Minimal input from the researcher and is less time-consuming
-Participants are more engaged
-No researcher bias and is easier for the researcher
Limitations
-Volunteer bias (volunteers may attract a certain profile of someone who wants to please the researcher meaning it is less generalisable)
-Not representative because it takes a certain type of volunteer
What is a systematic sample and how do you do it?
A systematic sample is when every nth member of a target population is selected e.g. every 3rd house on a street. In order to do it you need a list of people in a target audience organised e.g. alphabetical and then every nth number is picked
What are the strengths and limitations of a systematic sample?
Strengths
-Objective as the researcher has no choice over who is chosen
Limitations
- Time consuming and participants could refuse to take part
-Not representative
What is a stratified sample and how do you do it?
A stratified sample is when the sample reflects people in different subgroups within the target population or wider population. In order to do it you identify different strata and the proportions needed to be representative are worked out. Then participants are selected with random allocation.
What are the strengths and limitations of a stratified sample?
Strengths
-Produces a representative sample of the design
-Does not have to have an equal amount in each category
Limitations
-Complete representation is not possible because it cant reflect everyone
- VERY time consuming
