Research Methods Alt Flashcards
Laboratory experiments
An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment.
Laboratory experiments pros and cons
Pros: High control over extraneous variables, higher internal validity, easily replicable.
Cons: Lack generalizability, low internal validity, demand characteristics, low mundane realism.
Field experiments
An experiment conducted in a natural setting.
Field experiments pros and cons
Pros: High mundane realism, high external validity.
Cons: Low control of extraneous variables, low internal validity, difficult to replicate, ethical issues with consent, deception and privacy.
Natural experiments
An experiment where the independent variable changes naturally.
Natural experiments pros and cons
Pros: Unique research and opportunities, high external validity.
Cons: Lacks generalizability, no random allocation, low internal validity.
Quasi-experiments
An experiment conducted on an IV that is based on an existing difference between people.
Quasi-experiments pros and cons
Pros: High control of variables, high internal validity.
Cons: No random allocation, may be confounding variables.
Naturalistic Observation
Involves watching and recording behavior in it’s natural setting, the setting it would naturally occur in.
Naturalistic Observation pros and cons
Pros: High ecological validity, low demand characteristics if undisclosed
Cons: Low control of variables, observer bias, small sample lacks generalizability, not replicable.
Controlled Observation
Involves watching and recording behavior in a structured environment where there is control over variables.
Controlled Observation pros and cons
Pros: High control of variables, can be replicated.
Cons: Low ecological validity, observer bias.
Covert Observation
When participant’s behavior is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
Covert Observations pros and cons
Pros: Less investigator effects, higher internal validity
Cons: Ethical issues about informed consent.
Overt Observations
When participant’s behavior is watched and recorded with their knowledge and informed consent.
Overt Observations pros and cons
Pros: More ethical as informed consent is given.
Cons: Investigator effects, low internal validity.
Participant Observation
One of the observers joins the group and watches and records behavior from inside the group.
Participant Observation pros and cons
Pros: Can obtain detailed and more accurate data.
Cons: Demand characteristics and researcher variables may affect behavior.
Non-participant Observation
The observer remains outside of the group and watched and records their behavior from outside.
Non-participant Observation
Pros: Less investigator effects and variables.
Cons: Less detailed observation and might miss important data.
Self-report techniques
Any method where a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours or experiences related to an investigation’s topic.
Questionnaire
Set of written questions used for self-report. Can be used to assess the dependent variable.
Structured interview
A ‘live’ encounter between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks a set of pre-determined questions to assess the interview’s thoughts and experiences.
Unstructured interview
A ‘live’ encounter between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer has a conversation with the interviewee with a general aim to a certain topic to assess their thoughts and experiences.
Semi-structured interview
An interview that falls between a structured and an unstructured interview. There may be a list of pre-set questions but the interviewer is also free to ask-follow up questions.
Correlation
A mathematical technique that looks into investigating an association between two co-variables. Can be positive, negative or zero.
Analysis of the relationship between co-variables
The co-efficient will always fall between +1 and -1. This indicates how strong the correlation is. Analysis will always ask you what direction and how strong the relationship between the co-variables are.
The difference between correlations and experiments
Experiments manipulate an indepdendent variable whilst correlations look at co-variables.
Content analysis
A type of observational research that studies people indirectly via communications people have produced, such as conversations, text messages, social media or media.
Case studies
An in-depth investigation of a unique person, group or case that usualy has an unusual disorder or sequence. Produces qualitative data.
Aims
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate. The purpose of the study.
Hypotheses
A testable statement stated before a study begins that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated.
The difference between aims and hypotheses
The aim regards what you are investigating whilst the hypothesis reflects what you think you will find in the investigation.
Directional hypothesis
A hypothesis that states the direction of the relationship between the variables. Is used when the object of the study has been studied before.
Non-directional hypothesis
A hypothesis that does not state the direction. Is used when the object of the study has not been studied before.
Sampling
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. Samples are drawn from a population and presumed to be representative of that population.
Random sampling
A form of sampling where all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
Random sampling pros and cons
Pros: No researcher bias, prevents from choosing people who support the hypothesis.
Cons: Time-consuming, selectants may refuse to take part, may end up with unrepresentative sample.
Systematic sampling
A form of sampling where every nth member of the target population is selected.
Systematic sampling pros and cons
Pros: No researcher bias
Cons: Time-consuming, selectant can refuse to take part, may end up with unrepresentative sample.
Stratified sampling
When the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups within the target population.
Stratified sampling pros and cons
Pros: Greater precision and more representative, no researcher bias.
Cons: Time-consuming
Opportunity sampling
A form of sampling where researchers decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available at the time.
Opportunity sampling pros and cons
Pros: Cost and time efficient.
Cons: Unrepresentative of the target population, researcher bias.
Volunteer sampling
A form of sampling where participants select themselves to be part of the sample.
Volunteer sampling pros and cons
Pros: Cost and time efficient.
Cons: Researcher bias, unrepresentative of the target population, tends to attract a certain type of character.
Pilot studies
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted.
The aims of pilot studies
The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales and other designs work to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications. Saves money.
Experimental design
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organized in relation to the experimental conditions.
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
Repeated measures pros and cons
Pros: Fewer participants needed in the investigation.
Cons: Order effects, demand characteristics.
Independent groups
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experiment condition.
Independent groups pros and cons
Pros: No order effects, less time-consuming.
Cons: More participants needed, doesn’t control for individual differences.
Matched pairs
Pairs of participants are matched on some variable that may affect the DV. One member is then assigned to one experimental condition and the other to another condition.
Matched pair pros and cons
Pros: Controls individual differences, less participant variables, no order effects.
Cons: More time-consuming.
Observational design
Techniques and designs researchers use to observe participant behavior during an investigation.
Behavioral categories
When a target behavior is broken up into components that are observable and measurable. Makes observations of large groups easier for the observer.
Event sampling
A target behavior or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
Time sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behavior in a fixed time frame.
Questionnaire pros and cons
Pros: Cost-effective, can gather large amounts of data, produces straightforward data, can be statistically analyzed, comparisons can be drawn.
Cons: Responses may not be truthful due to social desirability bias, response bias, acquiescence bias.
Use of open and closed questions
An open question does not have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer in any way they wish. Open questions tend to produce qualitative data. It is more rich, but difficult to analyze
A closed question offers a fixed range of answers. It produces both qualitative data and quantitative data. Is easier to analyze but may lack depth and detail.
Questionnaire construction
Questionnaires can use likert scales, rating scaled or fixed choice options.
Likert scales
A scale where the respondent indicates their agreement or disagreement with a statement using a scale of usually five points.
Rating scales
A scale where respondents are asked to identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic.
Fixed choice option
Includes a list of possible options and respondents are asked to indicate which ones apply to them.
Design of interviews
Involve an interview scheduele, should be standardised to reduce interviewer bias, can be single or group interviews, interviewees should be reminded of their privcacy and confidentiality rights.
Writing good questions
- Do not overused jargon.
- Do not use emotive language and leading questions.
Avoid double-barrelled questions and double negatives.
Variables
An object, person or state that can change or vary within an investigation.
Manipulation and control of variables
Manipulation of variables is done to determine if change on a variable effects change on another variable.
Independent variable
A variable of the experiment that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally, independently of the other variables, to measure the effect on the DV.
Dependent variables
Variable that is measured by the researcher. Expected to be effected by the IV.
Extraneous variables
“Nuisance” variables that the researcher is not interested in investigating but could have an effect on the DV if not controlled.. Gets in the way of measuring the IV’s effect on the DV.
Confounding variables
Variables that vary systematically within the IV. Makes it unclear whether the source of change came only from the IV.
Operationalisation
Process of clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Random allocation
The use of chance to control for participant variables in an independent groups design. Ensures each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.
Counterbalancing
The use of splitting the participants experience in half to control for the effects of order in a repeated measure. Half experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite or a different order.
Randomisation
Using chance to eliminate the possibility of bias when making decisions for the experiments design.
Standardisation
The use of the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants within a study to decrease the possibility of extraneous variables
Demand characteristics
Cues from the researcher or situation that the participant interprets as revealing the aim of the investigation. Can lead to conscious or unconscious change in the participant’s behaviour.
Investigator effects
Effect of the researcher’s unconscious or conscious behaviour on the DV and thus research outcome.
Ethical issues and how to deal witht them
Issues that arise when a conflict exists between the rights of the participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce valid and worthwhile data.
Privacy and confidentiality
People’s right to have their data protected. Researchers use numbers or intials to protect participant’s identities.
Deception
Participants’ rights to not be deceived by the researchers. Must be given a full debrief, be reassured of behaviour, offered counselling and be reminded of their right to withdraw.
Informed consent
Knowing what you are getting into before getting into it. Involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, procedure, their rights and what their data will be used for.
Protection from harm
Participants must not be subject to physical or psychological harm during the study. They are to be offered counselling and be reminded of their right to withdraw.
Cost-benefit analysis
The analysis of how the cost of ethical transgressions could be worth the benefits that arise from the findings of the study.
Peer Review
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Psychology for the economy
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Reliability
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Test-retest
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Inter-observer
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Improving reliability
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Validity
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Face validity
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Concurrent validity
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Ecological validity
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Temporal validity
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Assessing validity
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Improving validity
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Objectivity
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Empirical method
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Replicability
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Falsifiability
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Theory of construction
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Hypothesis testing
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Paradigms
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Paradigm shifts
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Reporting psychological investigations
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Abstract
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Introduction
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Method
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Results
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Discussion
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Referencing
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