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Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Nervous System

A

Primary internal communication system. Consists of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Communicates via electric and chemical signals.

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2
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Made up of the brain and spinal cord. The centre of conscious awareness, commands and decisions. Passes messages to and from the brain, connects nerves to the PNS.

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3
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Sends sensory information from the world to the CNS and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body.

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4
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Transmits information from sense organs to the CNS. Receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act.

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5
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Transmits information to and from organs. Governs vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, arousal and stress response.

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6
Q

Sympathetic State

A

Increases heart rate, increases breathing rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion, inhibits saliva production.

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7
Q

Parasympathetic State

A

Decreases heart rate, decreases breathing rate, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, stimulates saliva production.

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8
Q

Endocrine System

A

A major information system that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are carried towards target organs in the body. Communicates via chemicals.

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9
Q

Gland

A

An organ that synthesizes and releases hormones.

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10
Q

Hormone

A

A biochemical that circulates in the blood to affect target organs. Hormones act more slowly but have widespread and powerful effects.

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11
Q

Fight or flight response

A

The way an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight or flee.

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12
Q

Adrenaline

A

Hormone produced by the adrenal gland that produces the human body’s stress response. It has a strong effect on the cells of the cardiovascular system.

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13
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

The ‘master gland’ of the body that controls the release of hormones from all other glands in the body.

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14
Q

Thyroid Gland

A

A gland in the throat that releases thyroxine which affects metabolic rates as well as growth rates.

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15
Q

Neuron

A

The basic building blocks of the nervous system, neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.

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16
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Carry messages from the PNS to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons.

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17
Q

Relay neurons

A

These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.

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18
Q

Motor neurons

A

These connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons.

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19
Q

Synaptic transmission

A

The process by which neighboring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synapse.

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20
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Can have an excitatory or an inhibitory function.

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21
Q

Excitation

A

When a neurotransmitter increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron. Increases the likelihood the postsynaptic neuron will fire.

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22
Q

Inhibition

A

When a neurotransmitter increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron. Decreases the likelihood the postsynaptic neuron will fire.

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23
Q

Localisation of function

A

The theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours, processes or activities.

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24
Q

Motor area

A

A region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement.

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25
Q

Somatosensory area

A

An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch.

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26
Q

Visual area

A

A part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information.

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27
Q

Auditory area

A

Located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech-based information.

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28
Q

Broca’s area

A

An area of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production.

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29
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

An area of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere responsible for language comprehension.

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30
Q

Evidence from neurosurgery

A

Dougherty et al (2002) report on 44 people with OCD who had a cingulotomy found that 30% successfully responded to the surgery. Suggests behaviours associated with mental disorders may be localised.

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31
Q

Evidence from brain scans

A

Petersen et al (1988) used brain scans to demonstrate Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task.

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32
Q

Counterpoint from animal studies

A

Karl Lashley (1950) removed areas of the cortex in rats and this did not affect their ability to learn to navigate a maze.

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33
Q

Language localisation questioned

A

Language streams have been identified across the cortex, including regions in the right hemisphere, subcortical regions and thalamus. Suggests that language may be holistically organised in the brain.

34
Q

Case study evidence

A

The case of Phineas Gage (1848), difficult to make meaningful generalisations from a single individual.

35
Q

Hemispheric lateralisation

A

The idea that the two hemispheres of the brain are functionally different. Certain mental processes are mainly controlled by one hemisphere.

36
Q

Split-brain research

A

A series of studies in the 1960s involving people with epilepsy who had surgical separation of the hemispheres. This enabled researchers to test lateral functions of the brain in isolation.

37
Q

Sperry’s research

A

Roger Sperry’s (1968) system to study how two separated hemispheres deal with speech or vision for example.

38
Q

Lateralisation in the connected brain

A

Fink et al (1996) used PET scans to identify which brain areas were active during a visual task. RH was more active with global elements of an image (whole picture) and LH more active on finer details.

39
Q

One brain

A

Nielsen et al (2013) analyzed brain scans of over 1000 people aged 7-29 years and found some evidence of lateralization but no evidence of a dominant side.

40
Q

Lateralisation vs plasticity

A

Rogers et al (2004) showed that lateraliation is adaptive as he showed lateralised chickens could find food while watching for predators but unlateralised chickens could not.

41
Q

Lateralisation vs plasticity 2.0

A

Holland et al (1996) suggested neural plasticity is also adaptive and that following trauma some functions can be taken over by non-specialised areas in the opposite hemisphere.

42
Q

Split-brain research support

A

Gazzaniga with Luck et al (1989) showed that split-brain participants perform better than connected controls on certain tasks. They were faster at identifying the odd one out in an array of objects.

43
Q

Split-brain research support 2.0

A

Kingstone et al (1995) suggested that in the normal brain the LH’s better cognitive strategies are watered down by the inferior RH.

44
Q

Split-brain research issues

A

Generalisation is a limitation of Sperry’s research. Causal relationships are hard to establish, as none of the participants in the control group had epilepsy this is a major confounding variable.

45
Q

Plasticity

A

The brain’s tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience

46
Q

Functional recovery

A

A form of plasticity of the brain’s ability to redistribute or transfer functions following damage through trauma from damaged areas to undamaged areas.

47
Q

Research into plasticity

A

Maguire et al (2000) studied the brains of taxi drivers and found significantly more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than the control group.

48
Q

Research into plasticity 2.0

A

Draganski et al (2006) imaged the brains of medical students three months before and after their final exams and found learning-induced changes occured n the posterior hippocampus and parietal cortex,

49
Q

Axonal sprouting

A

The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neural pathways.

50
Q

Denervation supersensitivity

A

Occurs when axons that do a similar job to the damaged areas become aroused to a higher level to compensate for the ones that are lost. Can have the consequence of oversensitivity.

51
Q

Recruitment of homologous areas

A

When the area on the opposite side of the brain that’s been damaged picks up and carries out its functions. Functionality may shift back to the other side after full recovery.

52
Q

Negative plasticity

A

Medina et al (2007) showed evidence that the brain’s adaptation to prolonged drug use leads to poorer cognitive functioning in later life. Phantom limb syndrome is also unpleasasnt.

53
Q

Age and plasticity

A

Bezzola et al (2012) demonstrated how golf training produced changes in the neural representations of movements in participants aged 40-60. Observed increased motor cortex activity.

54
Q

Seasonal brain changes

A

May be seasonal plasticity in response to environmental changes. Tramontin and Brenowitz (2000) observed evidence the suprachiasmatic nucleus shrinks in all animals during spring and expands through autumn.

55
Q

Cognitive reserve

A

Eric Schneider et al (2014) revealed the more time spent in education the greater the chance of a disability-free recovery.

56
Q

Meditation

A

Lazar et al (2005) demonstrated how meditators have thicker cortexes. Meditation showed an increase in grey matter in the left hippocampus, associated with learning and memory and increase in white matter in the anterior cingulate cortex, associated with self-regulation and control.

57
Q

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A

Uses magnetic field and radio waves to monitor blood flow in the brain. Can detect which areas of the brain are rich in oxygen and thus active. Used to measure brain activity while performing a task.

58
Q

Electroencephalogram (EGG)

A

Electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity directly below where they are placed. By measuring wave patterns can help diagnose conditions of the brain.

59
Q

Event-related potentials (ERP)

A

Electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity in response to a stimulus introduced by the researcher. Data can be isolated through statistical analysis.

60
Q

Post-mortem examinations

A

Brain is examined after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours in life can be linked to structural damage/abnormalities in the brain.

61
Q

fMRI Strengths

A

Does not rely on the use of radiation. High spatial resolution. Clear picture of brain activity.

62
Q

fMRI Limitations

A

Expensive. Poor temporal resolution.

63
Q

EEG Strengths

A

Useful for diagnosing epilepsy. High temporal resolution. Real-word usefulness.

64
Q

EEG Limitations

A

Not useful for pinpointing exact source of neural activity.

65
Q

Biological Rhythms

A

Patterns of changes in body activity that conform to cyclical time periods. Influenced by endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers.

66
Q

Circadian Rhythms

A

Biological rhythms subject to 24-hour cycle which regulate body processes. Example, sleep-wake cycle, change in core body temperature.

67
Q

Infradian Rhythm

A

A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of less than one cycle in 24 hours, such as menstruation and seasonal affective disorder.

68
Q

Ultradian Rhythm

A

A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of more than one cycle in 24 hours, such as the stages of sleep.

69
Q

Endogenous pacemakers

A

Internal body clocks that regulate many of our biological rhythms, such as the influence of the suprachiasmatic nucleus on the sleep/wale cycle.

70
Q

Exogenous zeitgebers

A

External factors that affect or entrain our biological rhythms, such as the influence of light on the sleep/wake cycle.

71
Q

Sleep/wake cycle

A

A daily cycle ofbiological activity based on circadian rhythm influenced by regular variations, such as light and darkness.

72
Q

Siffre’s Cave Study

A

Spent two months in a cave. Resurfaced in September but believed it was August. His biological rhythm settled to around 25 hours, he continued to fall asleep and wake up on a regular scheduele.

73
Q

Aschoff et al 1976

A

Participants spent 4 weeks in a WW2 bunker. All but one disaplyed a circadian rhythm between 24 and 25 hours. Suggests that endogenous pacemakers control our circadian rhythm more than exogenous zeitgebers.

74
Q

Folkard et al 1985

A

Studied 12 people who lived in a cave for three weeks. Went to bed when the clock said 11:45 and woke at 7:45. The clock was gradually sped up. 24 hours day eventually lasted 22 hours. Only one of the participants comfortaly adjusted. Suggest the existence of a strong circadian rhythm that cannot be overriden by exogenous zeitgebers.

75
Q

Shift work

A

Strength of circadian rhytm research provides an understanding of the bad consequences if it is disturbed.Boivin et al 1996, night workers experienced reduced concentration around 6 in the morning meaning more accidents likely to happen.

76
Q

Counterpoint shift work

A

However, studies investigating shit work use correlational methods, Difficult to establich a causal relationship.

77
Q

Limitaton of cave studies

A

Studies are based on small sample of participants and individual differences are important. Duffy et al 2001 found that some people have a natural preference as night owls or early birds.

78
Q

Strength of circadian rhytms research

A

Medical treatment has been adjusted to correspond with biological rhythms. Taking aspirin at night is more effective against heart attacks. Increases the effectiveness of drug treatment.

79
Q

Synchronising the menstrual cycle

A

Study by Stern et al found menstraual cycles can sync as a result of the influence of pheromones.

80
Q

Seasonal Affective Disorder

A

Triggered during the winter months. Hypothesised melatonin could be the cause. Knock on effect to the production of serotonin.

81
Q

Stages of sleep

A

Stage 1 and 2: Light sleep, brain waves are high frequency with short amplitude. These are alpha waves.
Step 3 and 4: Deep sleep, slow wave sleep. Brain waves at lower frquency and high amplitude.
Stage 5: REM sleep, body is paralysed, brain activity produces theta waves, dreaming, brain activity seems awake.

Psychology (9 decks)

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