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Research Methods Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is positivism?

A

Durkheim suggested that logic and methods are needed for something to be science. Social facts are measure objectively and vulnerability free and cause and effect can be established from correlations. Statistical, numerical and quantitative data is collected, so patterns and trends can be identified, comparisons can be made and consistency can be checked. There is large scale data collected with operationalised variables. Pilot study, charts or graphs may be used.

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2
Q

Advantages of Positivism. (3)

  • statistical
  • cause
  • repeatable.
A
  • statistical data is a prime source of proof as data can be compared and areas for further research can be identified.
  • cause and effect and causation can be established from correlations.
  • the data is repeatable and can be checked in experiments.
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3
Q

Disadvantages of Positivsm. (4)

  • reality
  • will
  • correlations
  • experiments
A
  • social reality cannot be studied. It ignores subjective data so it lacks meanings, interpretations and verstehen as there is too much focus in numbers, facts and figures. This is invalid
  • correlations don’t allow to go beyond the data
  • experiments are unethical, artificial and lack ecological validity. Also there could be demand characteristics.
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4
Q

What is Interpretivism?

A

This is rich, detailed, high quality and descriptive data. Examples are interviews, questionnaires and surveys. They show the interpretation of social action, meanings and motives. They reject positivists and natural sciences. They believe that gaining rapport can increase the validity and help gain verstehen. It allows us to uncover deep understanding and meaning, which is reflective. Qualitative data is collected, which is words and gives insight and meaning.

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5
Q

What is reflexivity?

A

This is when the researcher stands back and examines the research and the relationship with the participant.

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6
Q

Advantages of Interpretivism. (1)

- valid

A
  • data contains more depth and understanding. It is rich, detailed and insightful, which increases validity.
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7
Q

Disadvantages of Interpretivism. (4)

  • Positivists
  • sample
  • demand
  • verstehen
A
  • Positivists would criticise
  • this focuses on a small sample, so is unrepresentative
  • demand characteristics or social desirability could affect results which reduces reliability.
  • full verstehen is difficult to gain.
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8
Q

What is primary data?

A

This is data the researcher collects themselves and doesn’t already exist.

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9
Q

What is reliability?

A

This is if research can be repeated and gain the same or similar results.

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10
Q

What is validity?

A

This is if the research is really measuring what it set out to study.

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11
Q

What is practicality?

A

This is how easy it is to carry out. So quantitative data is more practical than qualitative.

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12
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

This is numerical, factual and statistical data in the form of figures. It is less time consuming, studies large samples, and is easy to identify patterns and trends. Standardised measuring is used which is reliable. It is more theoretical and easy to manage. Examples are experiments, questionnaires and surveys. It is favoured by Positivists. However it leaks depth and validity and doesn’t describe meaning or motives.

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13
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

This is data that gains detailed and in depth data that helps gain a true picture of social reality. It is more valid and focuses on the quality of data, meaning and motives. It is favoured by Interpretivists. Examples are unstructured interviews or observations. However it uses small samples and is less reliable because it is unsystematic and can’t be quantified. So it is less replicable.

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14
Q

What are laboratory experiments?

A

These use scientific equipment to measure variables and concepts. A testable hypothesis and operationalised variables are needed. EV and CV need to be identified and controlled. Data is quantified by numbers and it is reliable and replicable.

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15
Q

Advantages of laboratory experiments. (2)

  • controlled
  • Positivists
A
  • they are highly controlled

- Positivists support this

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16
Q

Disadvantages of laboratory experiments. (2)

  • ecological
  • demand
A
  • they are artificial so it is not a true representation of human behaviour and lacks ecological validity
  • demand characteristics may affect results.
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17
Q

What are field experiments?

A

These are conducted in a natural social setting or environment and there is some control.

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18
Q

Disadvantages of field experiments. (3)

  • inaccurate
  • demand
  • bias
A
  • this is inaccurate because there is some control
  • there may be some demand characteristics
  • there may be experimenter bias
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19
Q

What is experimenter bias?

A

This is when the characteristics of the experimenter inadvertently affects results.

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20
Q

What are case studies?

A

This is one particular case or incident about one person or a small group of people e.g a persons lie history. There is a lot of depth.

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21
Q

Advantages of case studies. (3)

  • prove
  • new
  • larger
A
  • they can be used to prove or disprove theories
  • they provide new information and insights
  • it generates ideas to study on a larger sample and could be used as a pilot study.
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22
Q

Disadvantage of case studies. (1)

- generalised

A
  • the data is limited and unrepresentative so it cannot be generalised.
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23
Q

What are official statistics?

A

This is secondary data, that is usually quantitative, so it is reliable but not valid. The best source is the Census which is done every 3 years by every household in the UK. These are collected through registration and official surveys. However sometimes there is political bias. With government departments, data needs to be processed and published because it is required by them. Examples are the Department of Education, the Home Office and Social Services. Surveys may also be used to collect statistics data. An example is the Office for National Statistics, who are responsible for compiling and analysing UK economic, social and population statistics.

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24
Q

What is secondary data?

A

This is data collected by local or regional governments about birth, marriage or death. So it has been collected by another researcher for another purpose.

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25
Q

What is political bias?

A

This is when governments manipulate statistics so they are biased when reported. They may hide some statistics and refuse to publish them if they do not show what they set out to study. They may be then released when other media stories dominate. This may negatively affect other research work as these may be the only source of data on a topic like death records.

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26
Q

Advantage of official statistics. (6)

  • cost
  • sample
  • planned
  • regularly
  • patterns
  • multiple
A
  • they cost little or nothing and are readily available
  • large samples are usually used which makes it representative
  • they are usually well planned, organised and detailed which make the, reliable
  • they are conducted regularly so they have high temporal validity
  • it is easy to identify patterns and trends
  • this can be used again for different variable so they have multiple uses
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27
Q

What are non official statistics?

A

These are collected by independent companies, researchers or academic institutions. They generate data that can be bought or accessed for free.

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28
Q

Advantages of non official data. (2)

  • quantitative
  • accessible
A
  • quantitative data is used so it is objective, can be quantified, is practical and reliable.
  • it is freely accessible
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29
Q

Disadvantages of non official statistics. (2)

  • reliability
  • expensive
A
  • reliability cannot be guaranteed because we cannot be sure statistics are correct
  • they can be expensive
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30
Q

What are family histories?

A

This is using the recorded histories left by those who have experienced paste events. It could be in the form of sound recordings, film or old photographs.

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31
Q

Advantages of family histories. (3)

  • detailed
  • themes
  • culture
A
  • the data is detailed so is highly valid
  • specific themes and ideas can be identified
  • culture, values and norms are present so we can learn new ideas
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32
Q

Disadvantages of family histories. (3)

  • compare
  • biased
  • time
A
  • it can be difficult to compare and generalise
  • they can be biased which makes them unreliable
  • it can be very time consuming
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33
Q

What is previous sociological research?

A

This is rich information that has been collected by a previous sociologist. Researchers can examine the research topic, aims, results and replicate or extend the research further.

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34
Q

Advantages of previous sociological research. (3)

  • time
  • comparison
  • past
A
  • it saves time and money
  • it allows the comparison of different sets of results
  • this allows us to access data from the past
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35
Q

Disadvantages of previous sociological research. (3)

  • invalid
  • outdated
  • inaccurate
A
  • it could be invalid or unreliable
  • it could be outdated
  • it could be inaccurate
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36
Q

What are longitudinal studies?

A

These are carried out over a period of weeks, months or years. They study changes or developments over an extended period of time. Causal relationships and correlations can be identified. Examples of these are panel studies and cohort studies. The sample size remains relatively large to prevent drop outs affecting data.

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37
Q

What are panel studies?

A

This is a type of longitudinal study where the sample is selected from a sampling frame for example individuals, households or organisations.

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38
Q

What are cohort studies?

A

This is a type of longitudinal study where people who have the same social characteristics are studied.

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39
Q

Advantages of longitudinal studies. (5)

  • patterns
  • detailed
  • variables
  • policy
  • pluralism
A
  • patterns, trends and correlations can be identified over time.
  • data is rich and detailed because a good rapport and verstehen is gained.
  • they can be used to inform policy making and government strategies
  • methodological pluralism is usually used.
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40
Q

Disadvantages of longitudinal studies. (5)

  • drop
  • friendly
  • expensive
  • time
  • demand
A
  • some participants may drop out or the researcher could lose track of them which makes the sample unrepresentative.
  • the relationship between the participant and researcher may become too friendly and the research begins to lose their objectivity or may go native.
  • they could be expensive
  • they could be time consuming
  • there may be demand characteristics
41
Q

What is social policy?

A

This looks at ethics and is about the law and regulations and how they are influenced by sociological research. It is the action or inaction of the government and its agencies in relation to the lives of the population. Pressure groups and organisations could have an influence too.

42
Q

What are some examples of how sociological research has affected social policies?

A
  • Dobash and Dobash study on domestic violence in Glasgow may have affected the new law passed on 1st April 2019 in Scotland that psychological abuse is illegal.
  • studies like the human capital theory or horizontal and vertical segregation may have influenced laws on the gender pay gap.
  • the knife amnesty box that had been stolen may have affected the social policy that teachers need to be more vigilant about knife crimes.
43
Q

What is the population?

A

Everybody a researcher wishes to study.

44
Q

What is the sample?

A

This is the group of people from the population that the study will be conducted on.

45
Q

What is representativeness?

A

This is the idea that the sample has the same characteristics as the population and the results gained from them can be applied to everyone.

46
Q

What is the sampling unit?

A

This is the sample in terms of numbers and characteristics.

47
Q

What is the sampling frame?

A

This is the list of members of the sample from the population e.g phone directories.

48
Q

What is random sampling?

A

This is when every member has an equal chance of being selected e.g picking names from a hat.

49
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

This is choosing every nth person from a sampling unit.

50
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

This is when the population is divided into strata in terms of characteristics. Then each person is selected from a strata, making this method representative.

51
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

This is when the researcher finds one person who is willing to take part and then that person finds another and so on, until the sample grows large enough.

52
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

This is when the participant signs up themselves. They may see an advert on a poster or a magazine.

53
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

This is when the participant is easily accessible and convenient. They may be someone the researcher knows well or is in regular contact with.

54
Q

What is purposive sampling?

A

This is when the researcher knows what time of sample they are looking for and find them.

55
Q

What is quota sampling?

A

This is conducted on the street and the person looks for people e.g they may pick the first five people they see.

56
Q

What are pilot studies?

A

These are small scale preliminary studies done before the main study. It would be a test run on a small sample of participants. Changes can be made to the design, methodology or approach as it tests validity.

57
Q

Advantage of pilot studies. (1)

- problems

A
  • it can check problems and evaluate practicalities
58
Q

Disadvantages of pilot studies. (2)

  • time
  • sample
A
  • they are time consuming

- the researcher cannot use the same sample form the pilot study in their main study.

59
Q

What are ethics?

A

These are based on moral principles and are principles approved by the BSA.

60
Q

What are the ethical codes?

A
  • informed consent
  • respect for privacy
  • protection from harm
  • safeguarding the confidentiality of data
  • avoid deception
  • awareness of consequences of publishing- researchers should ensure they can publish their work without influence from sponsors.
  • right to withdraw
61
Q

What are questionnaires?

A

This is a set of questions compiled by the researcher and distributed to be self completed. These are not suitable for highly sensitive topics and should not be offensive or cause upset. The standardised instructions should be clear and it should be operationalised so it cannot be misunderstood. Confidentiality should be ensured and it shouldn’t be biased or leading. Closed or open questions can be used. It should produce a high return rate which ensures high validity.

62
Q

What are the types of questionnaires?

A
  • structured
  • unstructured
  • semi structured- a mixture of open and closed questions so has methodological pluralism
  • self completion by post- ensures confidentiality and anonymity
  • internet based- by email or on a website
  • hand delivered- delivered to a company, person or household
  • face to face- it is immediate.
63
Q

What are structured questionnaires?

A

These include closed questions, which are fixed answers like yes or no, so they collect quantitative data and is favoured by Positivists. These questions should account for every possible answer and if not, they should include an “other” or “none” answer. The person should only be able to select one answer. If a scale is used the. There should be equal amounts of positive and negative options so data is not distorted.

64
Q

What are unstructured questionnaires?

A

These include open questions, which are when respondents answer in their own words, so it collects qualittative data and is favoured by Interpretivists. In depth and quality data is collected and there is usually a similarity in themes and content.

65
Q

Advantages of questionnaires. (4)

  • dispersed
  • time
  • anonymity
  • contact
A
  • a larger and more representative sample can be reached, which is geographically dispersed if its postal
  • they are less time consuming and cheaper
  • anonymity is guaranteed
  • there is minimum contact between the researcher and participants so it remains objective.
66
Q

Disadvantages of questionnaires. (4)

  • rates
  • misunderstand
  • desirability
  • imposition
A
  • postal questions have the worst response rates
  • the participants may misunderstand or misinterpret questions making them invalid
  • the participants may lie because of social desirability bias
  • there may be imposition from the researcher in questions and they may be leading
67
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

This is clear and standardised. A rapport may be developed. They include closed questions that require short answers. They should be done in a good order.

68
Q

Disadvantages of structured interviews. (5)

  • interviewer
  • desirability
  • Feminists
  • snapshots
  • restrictive
A
  • there may be interviewer effects
  • there may be social desirability
  • Feminists suggests that the interviewer is exploited as a hierarchy is created. The researcher is powerful as they are in control and the interviewee is passive and powerless
  • it is costly as time and resources are used up
  • they only provide a snapshot of the persons views and motives
  • they are restrictive as there is no freedom to explore new topic areas.
69
Q

Advantages of structured interviews. (5)

  • administer
  • compared
  • training
  • bias
  • Positivists
A
  • they are quick and easy to administer and there are large samples
  • they can be easily compared and patterns and trends can be identified
  • researchers can be easily trained, making it standardised so it is inexpensive.
  • there is less social interaction between the participant and researcher so there is less bias.
  • Positivists approve the use of closed questions
70
Q

What are semi structured interviews?

A

These include a mixture of open and closed questions so both qualitative and quantitative data is collected.

71
Q

Advantages of semi structured interviews. (3)

  • pluralism
  • reliability
  • large
A
  • there is methodological pluralism
  • there is high reliability
  • quick and large samples can be used
72
Q

Disadvantages of semi structured interview skills.(3)

  • validity
  • reliability
  • time
A
  • they are less valid because of the use of quantitative data
  • they are less reliable because of the use of qualitative data
  • they are time consuming and small samples are used
73
Q

What are unstructured interviews?

A

These use open questions to collect in depth and high quality data. Trust and a good rapport is needed and qualitative data is collected.

74
Q

Advantages of unstructured interviews. (4)

  • validity
  • sensitive
  • interviewee
  • clarification
  • Interpretivists
A
  • verstehen and insight can be gained because a good rapport is established. This increases the validity.
  • sensitive research topics can be studied
  • the interviewee has control
  • questions can be clarified by the interviewer
  • Interpretivists approve the use of qualitative data.
75
Q

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews. (5)

  • reliability
  • time
  • small
  • bias
  • desirability
A
  • they have low reliability because cause and effect cannot be established
  • they are time consuming
  • small samples are used
  • there may be interviewer bias
  • there may be social desirability
76
Q

What is content analysis?

A

This is used to analyse the content of a text or source. It is a way of quantifying qualitative data in terms of predetermined categories in a systematic and replicable manner. There is potential to uncover hidden aspects. The text is broken down into smaller units to be easily analysed. The researcher decided the relevant categories, headings and then analyses.

77
Q

Advantages of content analysis. (4)

  • Positivists
  • patterns
  • cause
  • reliable
A
  • Positivists approve of the idea of quantifying qualitative data
  • patterns and trends can be identified
  • cause and effect can be established
  • it is reliable
78
Q

What are observations?

A

This is looking at a topic or recording of data. The meaning is analysed and what is seen is objective to the researcher.

79
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

This is when the sociologist doesn’t reveal their true identity.

80
Q

Advantages of covert observations. (4)

  • researcher
  • demand
  • validity
  • verstehen
A
  • it avoids researcher effects
  • there are no demand characteristics
  • there is high validity
  • rich and detailed data is collected and verstehen and insight is gained
81
Q

Disadvantages of covert observations. (2)

  • ethical
  • notes
A
  • there are ethical issues as there is no informed consent or right to withdraw and there is deception.
  • this is hard to sustain and it is difficult to take notes and get evidence.
82
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

This is when the sociologist reveals their true identity.

83
Q

Advantages of overt observations. (3)

  • ethical
  • accurate
  • questions
A
  • there are no ethical issues
  • it is more accurate and less rushed
  • questions can be asked freely
84
Q

Disadvantages of overt observations. (3)

  • demand
  • validity
  • verstehen
A
  • there may be demand characteristics
  • they lack validity
  • they lack verstehen and insight
85
Q

What are the issues with gaining entry into a group for an observation?

A

Some groups may not want to be studied as they may be involved in criminal activities or may be a gang. The researcher then needs to be accepted into the group.

86
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

This is when the researcher joins a group and participates in their daily activities.

87
Q

Advantages of participant observations. (4)

  • valid
  • depth
  • costs
  • demand
A
  • it is more valid as it is difficult to lie or mislead the researcher
  • in depth and insightful data is collected, which has gained verstehen and a good rapport. True meanings and representations can be uncovered
  • there are low costs
  • there are less demand characteristics
88
Q

Disadvantages of participant observations. (6)

  • reliability
  • practicality
  • time
  • subjective
  • sample
  • ethical
A
  • there is low reliability
  • there are practical difficulties as it is had to record data and join groups.
  • they are time consuming so the researchers life is disrupted
  • the data collected is subjective
  • a small sample is used
  • it is unethical
89
Q

What is an ethnography?

A

This is a study of the way of life of different people and cultures.

90
Q

Advantages of ethnographic research. (2)

  • cultures
  • behaviour
A
  • we can learn about new cultures

- we can gain a better understanding of human behaviour

91
Q

Disadvantages of ethnographic research. (4)

  • expensive
  • time
  • subjective
  • bias
A
  • they can be expensive
  • they can be time consuming
  • they are subjective to the researchers observations
  • they could lead to cultural bias
92
Q

What is methodological pluralism?

A

This is using more than one method to produce a more comprehensive view to gain new insights.

93
Q

What is triangulation by Denzin?

A

This is using more than one method of source of data to allow findings to be cross checked. These findings should correspond with each other . Qualitative and quantitative data enhances the validity and reliability. There’s are 3 types; data triangulation, investigator triangulation, and methodological triangulation, which is divided into within method triangulation or between method triangulation.

94
Q

What is data triangulation?

A

This is collecting data at different times from different people in different places. It combines primary and secondary data. It checks the validity of the researchers conclusions and interpretations.

95
Q

What is investigator triangulation?

A

This is the use of different researchers to check observed bias and interviewer bias.

96
Q

What are the two types of methodological triangulation?

A
  • within method

- between method

97
Q

What is within method triangulation?

A

This is using a variety of techniques within the same method.

98
Q

What is between method triangulation?

A

This is using a combination of research methods. The data produced by each method us checked by comparing the data produced by the other methods.

Sociology (5 decks)

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