research methods Flashcards
what is correlation coefficient?
a number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables
what is content analysis?
a research technique that enables the indirect study of behavior by examining communications that people produce, for example, in texts, emails, TV, film and other media
what is nominal data?
and example
data is represented in the form of categories
you can count how many boys and girls are in your year group
what is ordinal data?
and example
ordered data that does not always have equal intervals between each unit asking each member of your class to rate how much they like psychology on a scale of 1-10
what is interval data?
and example
data based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size
time, temperature, etc.
what are experimental methods?
they involve the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable
what are the 4 types of experiments?
field, laboratory, natural and quasi
what is an aim?
a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study
what is a hypothesis?
a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. stated at the outset of any study
what is a directional hypothesis?
a hypothesis that makes the difference that is anticipated between the two conditions clear
states the direction
what is a non-directional hypothesis?
a hypothesis that states there is a difference between the two conditions, but does not specify what the difference is
does not state the direction
what are variables?
any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation
why are variables used in experiments?
to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another
what are independent variables (IV)?
aspects of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher-or changes naturally- so the effect on the DV can be measured
what are dependent variables (DV)?
the variable that is measured by the researcher. any effect on the DV should be caused by changes in the IV
when may researchers use a directional hypothesis?
when the findings of previous research studies suggests a particular outcome
when may researchers use a non-directional hypothesis?
when there is no previous research, or findings from earlier studies are contradictory
what is operationalisation?
clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
why should all other variables (apart from the IV) that may potentially affect the DV remain constant in a properly run experiment?
so the researcher can be confident that the cause of the effect on the DV was the IV
cause and effect
what is the control group in an experiment?
group of participants who do not receive experimental treatment
why do we need a control group in an experiment?
for comparison, to make sure the IV is directly affecting the DV
why do variables need to be operationalised?
in order to make the hypothesis clear and testable
why is it important that variables are operationalised?
makes the variables easier to measure
what are extraneous variables?
any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if it is not controlled
why should a researcher identify extraneous variables at the start of the study?
so they can minimise their influence
examples of extraneous variables
age of participants, lighting in lab
do extraneous variables confound the findings of a study?
no
what are confounding variables?
any variable, other than the IV, that may have effected the the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV
do confounding variables confound the the findings of a study?
yes
what happens when a confounding variable is present in a study?
it creates a second, unintended IV
example of confounding variable
personality
what are demand characteristics?
any CUE from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. this may lead to a participant changing their behavior within the research situation
why is participant reactivity an issue?
it is a significant extraneous variable, and is very difficult to control- the participants behavior is no longer natural
what is the ‘please-U effect’ and the ‘screw-U effect’?
when participants act in a way that they think is expected and over-perform to please the experimenter
or when they deliberately underperform to to sabotage the results of the study
what are investigator effects?
any effects of the investigators behavior (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV)
what may investigator effects include?
selection and interaction with participants, the instructions, leading questions, smiling, etc
what is randomisation?
the use of chance wherever possible to reduce the influence on the design of the investigation/ to reduce bias
what does randomisation reduce the effects of?
extraneous and confounding variables, and investigator effects
what is standardisation?
using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
what will all participants be subjected to if a procedure is standardised?
the same environment, information and experience
what is experimental design?
the way in which participants are used- how participants are allocated to the different conditions in a study
what is an independent groups design?
when two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment
what is the biggest issue with independent groups?
how do researchers deal with this issue?
the participants who occupy the different groups are not the same, which means results may be due to individual differences- participant variables, rather than the IV
researchers use random allocation to deal with this
why are independent groups design less economical than repeated groups design?
because each participant contributes to a single result only. twice as many participants are needed to produce equivalent data to that collected from a repeated measures design
what is a strength of independent groups design over repeated measures?
order effects (how the order of the tasks effect the outcome of the study) are not a problem for independent groups, and participants are less likely to guess the aim of the study (demand characteristics)
what are repeated measures?
when all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
what is the biggest issue with using repeated measures?
how do researchers deal with this issue?
order effects
researchers use counterbalancing to deal with order effects
why are demand characteristics more likely to occur in a repeated measure design?
participants are more likely to work out the aim of the study, as they experience all of the conditions
what are the two strengths of using repeated measures?
participant variables are controlled
fewer participants are needed
what is matched pairs design?
where pairs of participants are matched are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV. then one member of the pair is allocated to condition A and the other to condition B
example of matched pairs design
in a memory test, participants may be matched on their IQ, as this might be a good indicator of their ability to recall information
why are matched pairs used?
to attempt to control the confounding variable of participant variables, and so that there is less chance that participants will work out the aims of the study
what does matched pairs often necessitate the use of beforehand?
a pre-test, so matching is effective
strength of matched pairs
participants only take part in a single condition so order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem
weakness of matched pairs
although there is attempt to reduce participant variables in this design, participants can never be matched exactly. even when identical twins are used as matched pairs, there will still be important differences between them that may affect the DV
why are matched pairs less economical than other designs?
pre-tests
is the matched pairs design time consuming?
yes
what is counterbalancing?
an attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order
what is mundane realism?
the degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world
what type of experiment has low mundane realism?
laboratory experiment
what type of experiment has high mundane realism?
field experiment
what are natural experiments?
when the researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing independent variable/situation, that would have happened even if the researcher hadn’t been there
example of natural experiment
the studies of Romanian orphanages
strength of natural experiment
they provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons
