Research methods Flashcards
Name 5 different methodologies in psychology?
Laboratory experiments
Field experiments
Natural/Quasi Experiments
Correlation Studies
Observational techniques
Self-report Questionnaires
Self-report interviews
Case studies
Content analysis
What is data?
Information produced from a research study.
What are the two types of data that can be produced from a research study?
Quantitative
Qualitative
What is quantitative data?
Numerical data that can be statically analysed.
What is Qualitative data?
Written, richly detailed, descriptive accounts of what is being studied.
What are the strengths of quantitative data?
More objective
Quicker to gather and analyse
Can be presented in ways that are easily and quickly understandable
What are the downsides of quantitative data?
Data can be superficial
Lacking depth and detail of participants’ subjective experience
What are advantages of qualitative data?
This allows participants to express themselves freely.
What are downsides of qualitative data?
Time consuming
Can be costly to collect
Difficult to analyse and suffer from problems of subjectivity.
Data gathered by psychologists can be of three types, what are these?
Primary
Secondary
Meta-analysis
What is primary data?
Directly collected by the psychologist them self e.g. questionnaires, interviews, observations, experiments.
What is secondary data?
Data collected by others e.g. official statistics, the work of other psychologists, media producers such as film or documentary.
What is a meta-analysis?
Refers to when a psychologist draws together the findings of conclusions of many research studies into 1 single overall conclusion.
What are laboratory experiments?
Lab experiments are the most complex methodology in terms of their logic and design.
Any lab experiment begins with an aim.
What is an Aim?
An aim is a loose, general statement of what we intend to investigate.
E.g. does alcohol affect driving performance?
What does every experiment look at?
The cause-effect relationship between 2 variables.
What is a variable?
A variable is any factor/thing that can be measured and changes.
For example,
Intelligence, aggression, score on authoritarian personality scale, short term memory capacity etc.
What is Operationalising variables?
In psychological research we often want to find a way of expressing a variable numerically. This is referred to as operationalising a variable.
How can a variable be operationalised?
Intelligence can be operationalised through an IQ test.
Authoritarianism can be operationalised through a questionnaire
STM capacity can be operationalised through a task such as seeing how many digits a participant can remember at once.
What is the independent variable?
The indecent variable is the variable the experimenter changes, which is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
What is the dependent variable?
The dependent variable is the variable the experiment measures in their experiment.
What do we do in experiments with independent variables and dependent variables?
In an experiment we usually test 2 conditions of independent variables against the dependent variable to see if there is a significant difference between how the 2 conditions of the independent variable affect the dependent variable.
Give an example of an experiment you could do to measure the cause-effect relationship between alcohol and driving performance?
To do this we could recruit 100 volunteer participants, randomly split them into 2 groups of 50, give the 1st group a measure of alcohol and then let them drive on a driving simulator which would produce a score of x/20 for driving performance.
The 2nd group would be given no alcohol and then allowed to drive on the simulator. Therefore, we would end up with 50 scores of x20 for those who had driven after consuming alcohol, and 50 scores of x/20 for those who had driven and consumed alcohol.
We could take the mean average score for each group and compare them. For example, we may find that those who had drunk alcohol scored a mean average of 10/20 whereas those who hadn’t consumed alcohol scored an average of 16/20. What we have done in this experiment is to test 2 conditions of independent variables (alcohol and no alcohol) against the dependent variable (driving performance) to see if there is a significant difference between how the 2 conditions of IV affect the DV.
If we find a significant difference between how the 2 conditions of the IV affect the DV we have found evidence that there is a case effect relationship between alcohol consumption and poor driving performance.
FOR FLASHCARDS IN THIS SECTION IV=Independent variable AND DV=Dependent variable.
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How do we formulate a hypotheses?
From the aim of our experiment we formulate our hypotheses.
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an exact, precise, testable prediction of what we expect to find in an experiment.
What is an experimental hypothesis?
A statement predicting that we will find a difference between how the 2 conditions of the IV affect the DV.
E.g. there will be a significant difference in driving performance between participants who have and have not consumed alcohol.
What are non-directional hypotheses?
This means that they do not make a prediction about the direction of results.
i.e. they don’t predict that 1 of the groups is going to do better or worse than the other, they just predict that some kind of difference will occur.
What are directional hypotheses?
A hypothesis that does make a prediction about the direction of the results of the experiment.
What is an example of a directional experimental hypothesis?
Participants who have consumed alcohol will show significantly poorer driving performance than participants who have not consumed alcohol.
Why would an experimenter choose a directional (or 1-tailed) hypothesis?
If the experimenter strongly expects that the results will go in a certain direction or previous research indicates this he may choose to apply a direction hypothesis.
What is experimental design?
In any experiment we always have at least 2 groups of participants performing in at least 2 experimental conditions.
The ways in which we allocate participants is the experimental design.
What is the independent groups design?
An experimental design where participants are split into 2 groups, each group performing in 1 condition only.
What are the limitations of the independent groups design?
Participant variables, the fact that individual differences between participants may affect the DV without us being ware of it will reduce the validity of our results.
It requires more participants than a repeated measures design.
What are the strengths of the independent groups design?
An advantage of this design is that we will not encounter Order Effects.
How can you reduce the effect of participant variables affecting the validity of results?
By having larger samples in our experiments and by randomly allocating participants to the 2 conditions.
What is the repeated measures design?
An experimental design, where all participants perform in the 1st condition and then perform in the 2nd condition. Allowing us to directly compare participants’ performance across the 2 conditions.
What are the limitations of the repeated measures design?
Order effects, when participants perform in condition 1 then condition 2 their performance in the 2nd condition may either improve due to practise or ego worse due to boredom or tiredness.
Participants may work out the aim of the study and exhibit demand characteristics.
What are Order effects?
Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect (improved in task set due to practise) or boredom effect on second task.
What can be used to overcome the problem of order effects?
Counterbalancing, this involves 50% of the participants performing in condition 1 first, then condition 2, while the other 50% of participants perform in condition 2 first then condition 1.
This is thought to balance out the problem of order effects.
What are the advantages of the repeated measures design?
The advantage of this design is that there is no possibility of participant variables threatening the validity of the study.
What is the Matched Pairs Design?
An experimental design, where before the study begins we find participants who we can match with each other in terms of relevant characteristics such as age, gender, IQ etc.
The study then runs as an independent groups design.
What are the advantages of a matched pairs design?
This design overcomes the problem or order effects as participants don’t complete both tasks and participant variables because each participant is matched with another participant in the other condition participant variables are less of a problem.
What are the disadvantages of the matched pairs design?
The disadvantage of this design is it may be costly, time consuming and difficult to find participants who match precisely.
What is validity?
Validity generally refers to the truthfulness and accuracy of our findings.
Why is validity important?
It is highly important because if experiments are not well designed and run, findings may be inaccurate and lead us to draw false conclusions.
What are the 2 types of validity?
Internal and External validity
What is internal validity?
This related to whether we are really measuring what we think we are measuring. In any experiment we are trying to isolate the effect of the IV on the DV. Therefore, we need to ensure that no other unwanted, uncontrolled extraneous variables are affecting the DV without our knowledge.
What happens if an extraneous variable affects our DV without our knowledge?
If an extraneous variable does affect our final results, we refer to it as a confounding (i.e. confusing) variable.
What is External validity?
This related to the extent that the findings of the study can be generalised beyond the research setting.
External validity can take 3 forms, what are they?
Ecological Validity
Population Validity
Temporal Validity
What is ecological validity?
This relates to the problem of whether studies conducted under highly controlled, artificial, lab situations can produced findings that can be generalised to everyday life , or whether behaviour shown by participants will be artificial.
E.g. in the drink-driving study, participants use a driving simulator which is not really similar to driving in a real car on a real road.
What is population validity?
If we only use small or biased/unrepresentative samples of participants, we may not be able to generalise findings to human behaviour in general.
What is temporal validity?
If studies were conducted a long time ago, it can be argued that their findings are not relevant to the present day.
E.g. Asch’s conformity study was conducted in 1950’s America and it has argued that the climate of America at this time was particularly conformist. Social change since the 50’s has meant that people are now far more non-conformist and indepedent.
What is an Extraneous variable?
Extraneous variables are variables which the experimenter has failed to eliminate or control which are affecting the DV without us being aware of it. This threatens the validity of the study and the accuracy of our findings.
What can cause extraneous variables to occur if not controlled or in place?
(There is 7 so name 4)
Random allocation of participants to experimental conditions.
To avoid any bias on the behalf of the researcher, participants should always be divided into groups randomly.
Standardisation of instructions and procedures.
Participants should be given exactly the same instructions as each other and go through exactly the same procedure as each other to avoid differences in these acting as extraneous variables.
Participant variables.
Participants’ age, intelligence, personality and so on should be controlled across the different groups taking part.
Situational variables.
The experimental setting and surrounding environment must be controlled. This may include the time of day, the temperature or noise effects.
Order effects
Participants may improve or get bored performing in different conditions. This can be controlled by using independent groups, matched participants or counter balancing.
Demand Characteristics or Investigator Effects.
A control group is a group of participants from who act as a baseline from which differences in the experimental group are measured.
What are the 3 techniques used to check for and ensure validity?
Face validity
Content Validity
Concurrent validity
What is Face validity?
Is the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as being able to measure the concept it claims to measure.
In other words, a test can be said to have face validity if it “looks like” it is going to measure what it is supposed to measure.
What is content validity?
Content validity involves independent experts being asked to assess the validity, accuracy and appropriateness of instruments and tests used to measure a variable.
E.g. agreeing that a particular IQ test is a valid measure of intelligence.
What is concurrent validity?
Concurrent validity involves comparing the validity of a new test/measure against an established test/measure whose validity is already known and trusted.
For example the results of a new form of IQ test could be tested against an old, established IQ test. If scores correlate between the 2 tests they are said to have concurrent validity.
If a study is to be regarded as credible it must be?
Valid.
How can the relationship between researcher and participants result in us not getting a valid picture of how people behave in the real world?
The fact that an experiment is a social situation means that behaviour may be affected by the presence of others (experimenter and other participants) and the expectations that participants have.
What are demand characteristics in experiments?
Demand characteristics refers to the fact that participants realise they are in an experiment and are being observed and tested. They may, therefore, alter their behaviour either to behave in ways they think the experimenter wants them to behave in or according to how they think they should behave.
Participants may try to work out the aim of experiment and modify their behaviour accordingly. They may also show ‘social desirability bias’- giving response they believe are correct or moral, rather than answering honestly.
What are investigator effects in experiments?
Investigator effects refers to the fact the experimenter may consciously or unconsciously give hints or clues to research participants about how he wants or expects them to behave.
What does Reliability of a study refer to?
The issue of if we conduct the study again will the study produce similar results.
What are the two types of reliability?
Inter-rater reliability
Test-retest reliability
What is inter-rater reliability?
This means that observers are all defining behaviours and recording observations in the same way as each other.
Thus, before the study begins observers should be trained through the use of, for example, a training video where they learn and are tested on how to define and categories behaviours in the same way as each other.
How can you assess inter-rater reliability?
By analysing the correlation between different observers score on the same behaviour. This will produce a correlation coefficient e.g. +0.96= a strong positive correlation (they are rating things in the same way as each other).
What is test-retest reliability?
Reliability of a test or questionnaire can be tested by asking a participant to complete the test/questionnaire, then complete it again 2 weeks and a month later. If answers are similar over a period of time, then the test/questionnaire can be said to have reliability.
How can you assess test-retest reliability?
By analysing the correlation between different test scores. This will produce a correlation coefficient e.g. +0.96 a strong positive correlation (high similarity between different test scores)
What are pilot studies?
A pilot study is a small scale version of the main study that is conducted in advance.
Why are pilot studies used?
To ensure:
The procedures of the study will run smoothly
That equipment/tests are functioning accurately
That participants understand instructions
That all extraneous variables are controlled.
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?
High degree of control, laboratory experiments can control all varies in the experiment. The IV and DV can be precisely defined (operationalised) and measured to assess cause-effect relationships. For example the amount of caffeine given IV and reaction time DV. This leads to greater accuracy and objectivity
Replication, other researchers can easily repeat/replicate the experiment and check results for reliability. This is much easier in a controlled laboratory situation as opposed to a field experiment conducted in the real world.
What are the limitations of laboratory?
Lack of ecological validity
(This relates to the problem of whether studies conducted under highly controlled, artificial, lab situations can produced findings that can be generalised to everyday life , or whether behaviour shown by participants will be artificial)
Demand characteristics
( Demand characteristics refers to the fact that participants realise they are in an experiment and are being observed and tested. They may, therefore, alter their behaviour either to behave in ways they think the experimenter wants them to behave in or according to how they think they should behave.
Participants may try to work out the aim of experiment and modify their behaviour accordingly. They may also show ‘social desirability bias’- giving response they believe are correct or moral, rather than answering honestly.
What is a field experiment?
A field experiment is an experiment that is carried out in the real world rather than under artificial laboratory conditions.
Participants are exposed to ‘set-up’ social situations to see how they respond.
The ‘naive’ participants are unaware they are taking part in an experiment.
What are the strengths of field experiments?
As the experiment is conducted in the real world levels of ecological validity are increased meaning that we can generalise behaviour to real-life behaviour.
As participants do not know they are involved in an experiment they will not show demand characteristics.
(WHEN DOING LONG QUESTION EXPLAIN DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS AND ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY)
What are the limitations of field experiments?
As the study is not conducted under tightly controlled laboratory conditions there is a greater chance that extraneous variables will influence the DV without the researcher being aware of this.
Field experiments often involve breaking ethical guidelines, e.g. failing to get participants consent, deceiving participants, failing to inform them of their right to withdraw or debriefing them etc.
What is a Quasi (natural) experiment?
This is a not a true experiment as the psychologist does not manipulate or ‘set up’ a situation to which participants are exposed to. Rather the psychologist observers a change in the natural world (the IV) and tries to assess whether it has an effect on another variable (the DV).
For example, psychologists have looked at the introduction of TV into remote communities (the 2 conditions of the IV are (i) no TV, and (ii) TV) and measured whether this had an effect on aggressiveness among children (DV).
What are the strengths of Quasi (natural) experiments?
As the experiment is conducted in the real world levels of ecological validity are increased.
As participants do not know they are involved in an experiment they will not show demand characteristics.
(EXPLAIN DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS AND ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY IN FULL IF LONG ANSWER QUESTION)
What are the limitations of quasi (natural) experiments?
As the study is not conducted under tightly controlled laboratory conditions there is a greater chance that extraneous variables will influence the DV without the researcher being aware of this.
Natural experiments may involve breaking ethical guidelines e.g. failing to get participants consent to be observed, failing to inform them of their right to withdraw or debriefing them.
What is a correlation study?
A correlation study involves measuring the relationship between 2 co-variables e.g. height and weight, stress and illness.
What are the three different possible correlations?
Positive
Negative
Neutral
What is a positive correlation?
As 1 variable increases do does the other.
E.g. stress and illness
What is a negative correlation?
As 1 variable increases the other decreased.
E.g. age and dependency on mother.
What is a neutral correlation?
No relationship between the co-variables.
E.g. IQ and height.
What do you need to conduct a correlation study?
You need to operationalise the 2 co-variables and their relationship can then be plotted on a scattergram for each participant.
The general pattern revealed should indicate whether the relationship is positive or negative and how weak or strong the relationship is.
What is a correlation co-efficient?
A number somewhere between -1 and +1 which will indicate the exact direction and strength of relationship between the 2 co-variables.
What is the value of a strong negative correlation co-efficient?
-1
What is the value of a medium negative correlation coefficient?
-0.5
What is the value of a weak negative correlation coefficient?
Just below 0
What is the value of a weak positive correlation coefficient?
Just above 1
What is the value of a medium positive correlation coefficient?
+0.5
What is the value of a strong positive correlation coefficient?
+1
What are hypotheses for correlation studies?
Hypotheses for correlation studies predict there will be a ‘relationship’ between 2 co-variables.
Hypotheses can be direction or non-directional depending on whether or not past research indicates whether we should expect to find a relationship (either positive or negative).
What are the strengths of correlation studies?
Correlation studies allow us to assess the precise direction and strength of relationship between 2 co-variables using correlation coefficients.
Correlation studies are a valuable preliminary (initial research tool. They allow us to identify relationships between variables that we may then decide to investigate in more detail through experimentation.
What are the limitations of correlation studies?
Correlation studies only tell us that there is some kind of relationship between 2 variables, they do not tell us about cause-effect relationships, and thus they are a weaker methodology than lab experiments.
We may sometimes find a correlation between 2 variables by pure chance, even when no real relationship exists between the variables, thus they may be misleading.
For example, there is an almost perfect negative correlation between Nigerian iron exports and the UK birth rate between 1870 and 1920 even though these factors are completely unrelated.
What are observations?
Observations simply involve observing behaviour in the natural environment.
What are the four types of observations?
Overt
Covert
Participant
Non-participant
What is an Overt observation?
The psychologist’s presence is made known to the group being studies. This may lead to demand characteristics and participants behaving in unnatural ways.
What is a Covert observation?
The psychologist’s presence is hidden. Either he appears as a normal member of the public or his presence is concealed in some way (e.g. CCTV camera).
Although this overcomes the problem of demand characteristics, there are ethical issues to do with deception, lack of consent and invasion of privacy.
What is a participant observation?
The psychologist joins the group being studies. This may be covert or overt.
What is a non-participant observation?
The psychologist remains outside the group being studied. This may be covert or overt.
What are the two types of observations?
Naturalistic observation, natural observation in the natural environment
Structured observations, a more objective way in which quantify behaviours are observed in an artificial manipulated environment.
What is event sampling?
Recording the number of times a particular event occurs.
What is time sampling?
Recording what is occurring at certain time intervals e.g. every minute.
What are the two ways of recording behavioural categories?
Event sampling
Time sampling
If a number of different observers are conducting the same observation study, what do we need to ensure the observers have?
Inter-rater reliability
When would you use time sampling?
There are occasions in which it might be useful for the researcher to gather an insight into where there are behaviour trends that occur over particular time periods.
What are the strengths of covert observations?
There are high levels of ecological validity and no demand characteristics.
Participants are unaware that they are being observed and they are in a natural environment, thus we are observing behaviour as it naturally occurs.
What are the weaknesses of covert observations?
Ethical issues arise concerning invasion of privacy, lack of consent and lack of right to withdraw.
What are the strengths of participant observations?
The psychologist can question participants and get a much more in depth insight into the behaviours, beliefs and motivations of the group being studied. Thus, a much deeper, richer, descriptive picture of behaviour is produced.
What are the weaknesses of participant observations?
The researchers present might influence the participants’ behaviour due to evaluation apprehension.
What are the strengths of overt observations?
It is possible to inform participants in advance and obtain informed consent.
What are the limitations of overt observations?
With overt observations participants may exhibit demand characteristics and act in socially-appropriate or otherwise unnatural ways.
What are the strengths of non-participant observations?
Investigator effects and evaluation apprehension are less likely as the researcher is not visible.
What are the limitations of non-participant observations?
Due to a lack of proximity the researcher might overlook or miss behaviours of interest
