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Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the Nervous system broken down into?

A

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

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2
Q

What are the two parts of the Central nervous system?

A

Brain

Spinal cord

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3
Q

What is the brain?

A

The brain is the centre of our conscious awareness. The brain’s outer layer, the verbal cortex, is highly developed in humans and is what distinguishes our higher mental functions from those of animals.

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4
Q

What is the Spinal cord?

A

An extension of the brain. It is responsible for reflex actions.

E.g. Pulling your hand away from a hot plate.

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5
Q

What are the two parts of the peripheral nervous system?

A

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

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6
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

Is our voluntary behaviour it controls muscle movements and receives information from sensory receptors.

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7
Q

What is our autonomic nervous system?

A

It is our involuntary behaviour that governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses.

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8
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system do?

A

The peripheral nervous system transmits messages via millions of neurons, to and from the central nervous system.

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9
Q

What are the two parts of the Autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic division

Parasympathetic division

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10
Q

What does the Sympathetic division do?

A

It is responsible for our fight-or-flight response

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11
Q

What does the Parasympathetic division do?

A

Returns our body back to normal after a fight-or-flight response.

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12
Q

What is the human nervous system?

A

A body wide system of nerve cells that collects information from the world, processes this information then takes action by directing body organs and muscles via the transmission of electro chemical messages.

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13
Q

What are the two parts of the nervous system?

A

Central nervous system

Peripheral nervous system

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14
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions.

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15
Q

What is the nervous system composed of?

A

100 billion cells called neurons.

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16
Q

What do neurons do?

A

Pass on messages via electrical and chemical signals.

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17
Q

How do neurons differ?

A

Although different types of neurons vary in size and function they all operate in the same way.

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18
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The point where one neuron (presynaptic) can send a chemical message to an adjacent neuron (postsynaptic).

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19
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemical messengers released by neurons. Stimulating or inhibiting the development of an action potential in other postsynaptic neurons.

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20
Q

What is the process of synaptic transmission?

A

Synaptic transmission is the process by which one neuron communicates with another.

Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse known as action potential. Once the action potential reaches the end of the axon it needs to be transferred to another neuron or tissue. It must cross over the synaptic gap between the presynaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron. At the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles, which contain chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters. When the electrical impulse (action potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles, they release their contents of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then carry the signal across the synaptic gap. They bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic cell, thereby completing the process of synaptic transmission

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21
Q

Neurotransmitters can have two effects on the neighbouring neurons what are they?

A

Excitatory

Inhibitory

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22
Q

What does it mean if a neurotransmitter at a synapse is Excitatory?

A

It makes a nerve impulse more likely to be triggered.

For example dopamine or serotonin which produce states of excitement/activity in the nervous system and in our mental state/behaviour?

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23
Q

What does it mean if a neurotransmitter at a synapse is inhibitory?

A

Makes a nerve impulse less likely to be triggered.

For example, GABA calms activity in the nervous system and produces states of relaxation.

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24
Q

What are sensory neurons?

A

These carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system. They have long dendrites and short axons.

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25
Q

What are motor neurons?

A

These connect the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles and glands .

They have short dendrites and long axons.

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26
Q

What are relay neurons?

A

These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons.

They have short dendrites and short axons.

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27
Q

What is the central nervous system made up of?

A

The brain and spinal cord.

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28
Q

What is the hindbrain?

A

Contains pons, medulla and cerebellum.

Pons and medulla Is a continuation of the spinal cord carrying on into the bottom of the brain, the brain stem, mainly composed of sensory and motor neurons.

The cerebellum controls movement and motor coordination.

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29
Q

The forebrain is divided into 2 parts, what are they?

A

The diencephalon.

The cerebral hemispheres.

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30
Q

What does the diencephalon contain?

A

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

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31
Q

What is the Thalamus?

A

Concerned with relaying sensory information from the brainstem to the cortex.

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32
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

Controls basic functions such as hunger, thirst, sexual behaviour, also controls the the pituitary gland.

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33
Q

What is the cerebral hemispheres?

A

Controls higher level cognitive and emotional processes

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34
Q

What does the cerebral hemispheres contain?

A

The limbic system
The basal ganglia
The cerebral cortex

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35
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

involved in learning memory and emotions

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36
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

Involved in motor activités and movement.

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37
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

Is involved with planning, problem-solving, language, consciousness and personality.

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38
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A

Sends information to the central nervous system from the outside world, and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body.

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39
Q

What are the two parts of the peripheral nervous system?

A

somatic nervous system

autonomic nervous system.

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40
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

Automatic behaviour by the body which controls bodily arousal, body temperature, homeostasis, heart rate and blood pressure.

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41
Q

What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The sympathetic nervous system.

Parasympathetic nervous system.

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42
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system do?

A

Leads to increased arousal e.g. increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Fight and flight response

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43
Q

What does parasympathetic nervous system do?

A

Leads to decreased arousal e.g. decreased heart rate and blood pressure. Returns body to normal after flight and fight response

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44
Q

What are hormones?

A

hormones are chemical messengers secreted from glands in the body which pass through the bloodstream to cause changes in our body or behaviour.

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45
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

The endocrine system is a network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages called hormones.

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46
Q

What are the 6 endrocrine glands you need to know?

A 
Thyroid
Adrenal Medulla
Adrenal cortex
Testes
Ovaries
Pineal
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47
Q

What is the main hormone Thyroid produces?

A

Thyroxine

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48
Q

What is the effect of thyroxine?

A

Regulates metabolic rate and protein synthesis

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49
Q

What is the main hormones the endocrine gland adrenal medulla produces?

A

Adrenaline and noradrenaline

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50
Q

What is the effect adrenaline and noradrenaline?

A

Used in flight of fight response:

Increased heart rate, blood pressure, release of glucose and fats for energy.

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51
Q

What is the main hormone the endocrine gland ‘adrenal cortex’ produces?

A

Corticosteroids

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52
Q

What is the effect of corticosteroids?

A

Release of glucose and fats for energy; suppression of the immune system.

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53
Q

What is the main hormone the testes produce?

A

Testosterone

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54
Q

What is the effect of testosterone?

A

Male sexual characteristics, muscle mass.

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55
Q

What is the main hormone the ovaries produce?

A

Oestrogen

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56
Q

What is the effect/use of Oestrogen?

A

Female sexual characteristics, menstruation, pregnancy.

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57
Q

What is the main hormone the endocrine gland pineal produces?

A

Melatonin

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58
Q

What is the effect of Melatonin?

A

Effects the sleep-wake cycle.

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59
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

It is the master gland and controls release of hormones many from the endocrine system.

It is divided into the anterior and posterior.

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60
Q

What hormones are released in the Anterior pituitary gland?

A

ACTH

Prolactin

Growth hormone

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61
Q

What is the effect of ACTH?

A

Stimulates release of corticosteroids during flight-fight response.

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62
Q

What is the effect of Prolactin?

A

Stimulates production of milk from mammary glands. (breasts)

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63
Q

What is the effect of growth hormone?

A

Cell growth and multiplication.

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64
Q

What hormones are released in the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Vasopressin

Oxytocin

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65
Q

What is the effect of Vasopressin?

A

Regulating water balance

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66
Q

What is the effect of oxytocin?

A

Uterine contractions during childbirth.

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67
Q

What is stress?

A

Stress is experiences when a person’s perceived environmental, social and or physical demands exceed their perceived ability to cope.

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68
Q

What is the body response to stress?

A

The fight or flight response.

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69
Q

Why is the flight or fight response hard-wired into our brains.

A

The fight or flight response is hard-wired response into our brains are represents an evolutionary adaptation designed to increase an organism’s chances of survival in life threatening situations.

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70
Q

What are the two major systems involved in the fight or flight response?

A

The sympathomedullary pathway

The pituitary-adrenal system.

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71
Q

What is the sympathomedullary pathway?

A

Deals with acute (short term, immediate) stressors such as personal attack.

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72
Q

What is the pituitary-adrenal system?

A

Deals with chronic (long-term, ongoing) stressors such as a stressful job.

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73
Q

How many stages are there in the body’s response to acute (immediate stress)?

A

4

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74
Q

What is the 1st stage of the body’s response to acute (immediate) stress?

A

Stressor is recognised by the Hypothalamus

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75
Q

What is the 2nd stage of the body’s response to acute (immediate) stress?

A

Hypothalamus sends a message to the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system- which causes a state of high physiological arousal.

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76
Q

What is the 3rd stage of the bodies response to acute immediate stress?

A

Neurons send signals to adrenal medulla, which causes the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline into bloodstream.

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77
Q

What is the 4th stage of the bodies response to acute immediate stress?

A

The release of adrenaline and noradrenaline into bloodstream helps prepare the body for action to survive life threatening stressors resulting in the fight or flight response.

By increasing:
Heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure

Oxygen supply to brain and muscles

Salivation reduced, pupil dilation, sweating to cool body, digestion slows

Blood flow diverted from skin surface to heart and brain.

78
Q

What happens to the body once the stressor has passed or been coped with in response to acute immediate stress sitautions?

A

Once the stressor has passed or been coped with the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system is activated which returns the body to a resting state: e.g. heart rate and blood pressure return to normal.

79
Q

What is the body’s response to acute immediate stress called?

A

The sympathomedullary pathway.

80
Q

What is the body’s response to chronic long term stressors?

A

The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal system.

81
Q

How many stages are there to the body’s response to chronic long term stressors?

A

5

82
Q

What is the 1st stage of the body’s response to chronic long term stressors?

A

Stressor is recognised by the hypothalamus

83
Q

What is the 2nd stage of the body’s response to chronic long term stressors?

A

Hypothalamus sends a message to the pituitary gland which releases ACTH into the bloodstream.

84
Q

What is the 3rd stage of the body’s response to chronic long term stressors?

A

ACTH travels to the adrenal cortex which releases corticosteroids into the bloodstream.

85
Q

What is the 4th stage of the body’s response to chronic long term stressors?

A

Corticosteroids leads to positive effects, liver releases energy in form of glucose, lowered sensitivity to pain.

86
Q

What is the 5th stage of the body’s response to chronic long term stressors?

A

Negative effects as a response to the body’s response to chronic long term stressors such as higher blood pressure, lower immune system response (immunosuppression) and impaired cognitive performance.

87
Q

What is brain localisation?

A

The link between brain structures and their functions e.g. language memory etc.

88
Q

How many hemispheres is the brain divided into?

A

2, left and right.

89
Q

What is the motor centre?

A

The motor cortex controls voluntary movements.

Both hemispheres of the brain have a motor cortex with each side controlling muscles on the opposite side of the body.

Different areas of the motor cortex controls different parts of the body and these are in the same sequence as in the body. (e.g. the part of the cortex controlling the foot is next to the part controlling the leg).

Located in frontal lobe.

90
Q

What is the sensorimotor centre??

A

The sensorimotor cortex registers sensory information from different areas of the body e.g. pain, temperature , pressure.

Both hemispheres have a sensorimotor cortex with each side receiving information from the opposite side of the body.

Located in parietal lobe.

91
Q

What is localising of function?

A

Is the idea that certain functions have certain locations or areas within the brain.

92
Q

What is the Visual centre?

A

Processes visual information starts when light enters the eye and strikes photoreceptors on the retina at the back of the eye. Nerve impulses then travel up the optic nerve to the thalamus and are then passed on to the visual cortex in the hindbrain. The right hemisphere’s visual cortex processes visual information received by the left eye and vice-versa.

The visual cortex contains different regions to do with colour, shape, movement etc.

93
Q

What is the auditory centre?

A

Processes auditory information (sound) begins in the inner ear’s cochlea where sound waves are converted into nerve impulses which travel along the auditory nerve to the brain stem. then to the auditory cortex which recognises the sound and may form an appropriate response to that sound.

94
Q

What is the language centre?

A

Contains two areas Broca’s area and Wernicke’s areas.

Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are connected by a loop which ties together language production and comprehension.

95
Q

What is Broca’s area as part of the language centre?

A

Broca’s Area is generally considered to be the main centre of speech production. The neuroscientist after whom this brain area is named found that patients with speech production problems had lesions to this area in their left hemisphere but lesions in the right hemisphere did not cause this problem. More recent research indicates Broca’s area is also involved with performing complex cognitive tasks e.g. solving maths problems.

96
Q

What is Wernicke’s area as part of the language centre?

A

Wernicke’s area is also in the left hemisphere and is concerned with speech comprehension. The neuroscientist after whom this brain area is named found that lesions in this brain area could produce but not understand/comprehend language. Wernicke’s area is divided into the motor region (which controls movements of the mouth, tongue and vocal cords) and the sensory area (where sounds are recognised as language with meaning).

97
Q

Where is the motor centre located?

A

At the back of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres.

98
Q

Where is the somatosensory centre?

A

At the front of both parietal lobes.

99
Q

Where is the visual area?

A

in the occipital lobe at the back of the brain.

100
Q

Where is the auditory centre?

A

Is located in the temporal lobe.

101
Q

What evidence is there supporting Localisation of function in the brain?

A

Research support from case studies – Phineas Gage was in an accident which caused him to lose part of his
frontal love which altered his personality – The frontal lobe may play a role in mood regulation this supports the existence of localisation theory.

Petersen et al 1988 used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task, suggesting that these areas of the brain have different functions.

102
Q

What evidence is there against localisation of function in the brain?

A

Equipotentiality theory argues that although basic brain functions such as the motor cortex and sensory functions are controlled by localised brain areas, higher cognitive functions such as problem solving are not localised. Research has found that damage to brains can result in other areas of the brain taking over control of functions that were previously controlled by the part of the brain that has been damaged. Therefore, the severity of brain damage is determined by the amount of damage to the brain rather than the particular area which has been damaged.

Karl Lashley (‘50) suggests that higher cognitive functions, such as the processes involved in learning, are not localised but distributed in a more holistic way in the brain. Lashley removed areas of the cortex between 10-50% in rats that were learning a maze. No area was proven to be more important than any other area in terms of the rats’ ability to learn the maze. The process of learning appeared to require every part of the cortex, rather than being confined to a particular area. This seems to suggest that learning is too complex to be localised and requires the involvement of the whole of the brain.

103
Q

What is Hemispheric lateralisation?

A

The idea that the two hemispheres of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other, as in the example of language.

104
Q

What are the brain’s 2 hemispheres connected by?

A

A bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum..

105
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

A bundle of nerve fibres which allows information to be received by one hemisphere to be transferred to hate there hemisphere.

106
Q

Who conducted split-brain research to assess the abilities of separated brain hemispheres?

A

Sperry (‘68)

107
Q

What was the procedure of Sperry (‘68) split-brain research?

A

Participants sat in front of aboard with a horizontal rows of light and were asked to stare at the middle point. The lights then flashed across their right and left visual field. Participants reported lights had only flashed up on the right side of the board.

When their right eye was covered and the lights were flashed to the left side of their visual field they claimed not have seen any lights at all. However, when asked to point at which lights had lit up they could do.

108
Q

What was the findings of Sperry’s (‘68) split-brain research?

A

Shows that participants had seen the lights in both hemispheres but that material presented to the left eye could not be spoken about as the right hemisphere (which receives information from the left eye) has no language centre and thus cannot speak about the visual information it has received. It can communicate about this in different non-visual ways, however e.g. participants could point at what they had seen.

109
Q

What conclusions can be made from Sperry’s (‘68) split-brain research?

A

This proves that in order to say that one has seen something the region of the brain associated with speech must be able to communicate with areas of the brain that process visual information.

110
Q

Evaluate the weaknesses of Sperry’s split-brain study?

A

Because split-brain patients are so rare, findings as described above were often based on samples of 2 or 3, and these patients often had other neurological problems which might have acted as a confounding variable. Also, patients do not always have a complete splitting of the 2 hemispheres. These factors mean findings should be generalised with care.

More recent research has contradicted Sperry’s original claim that the right hemisphere could not process even basic language. For example, the case study of Patient JW found that after a split-brain procedure he developed the ability to speak out of his right hemisphere which means that he can speak about information presented to either his left or his right visual field, contradicting findings from Sperry’s research.

111
Q

What are strengths of Sperry (‘68) study on split-brain research?

A

Strong methodology, the experiments involving split-brain patients made use of highly specialised and standardised procedures. Sperry’s method of presenting visual information to one hemispheric field at a time was quite ingenious. Typically, participants would be asked to stare at a given point, the ‘fixation point’, whilst one eye was blindfolded. The image projected would be flashed up for one-tenth of a second, meaning the split-brain patient would not have time to move their eye across the image and so spread the information across both sides of the visual field, and subsequently, both sides of the brain. This allowed Sperry to vary aspects of the basic procedure and ensured that only one hemisphere was receiving information at a time. Thus he developed a very useful and well-controlled procedure.

112
Q

What is plasticity?

A

Plasticity refers to neurological changes as a result of learning and experience. Although this traditionally associated with changes in childhood, recent research indicates that mature brains continue to show plasticity as a result of learning.

113
Q

What is functional recovery?

A

Functional recovery refers to brain functions moving from a damaged to an undamaged location after traumatic brain injury.

114
Q

What are the reasons for plasticity?

A

Learning new skills

A result of development changes

Response to direct trauma to area of the brain.

Response to indirect effects of damage such as brain swelling or bleeding.

115
Q

What research supports the existence of Plasticity?

A

Kuhn 2014 found that playing video games for 30+ minutes a day resulted in increase brain matter int he cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum. Thus, the complex cognitive demands involved in mastering a video game caused the formation of new synaptic connects in brain sites controlling spatial navigation, planning, decision making etc.

Kempermann 1998 found that rats housed in more complex environments showed an increase in neurons compared to a control group living in simple cages, changes were particularly clear in the hippocampus, associated with memory and spatial navigation.

116
Q

How does functional recovery work in stroke victims?

A

Victims who have experienced brain damage and thus lost some brain functions have shown that the brain has an ability to re-wire itself with undamaged sites taking over the functions of damages brain sites.

Thus, neurons next to damaged brain sites can take over at least some of the functions that have been lost.

117
Q

What are the two main ways functional recovery works?

A

Neuronal unmasking

Stem cells.

118
Q

What is Neuronal unmasking and how do it work as part of functional recovery?

A

Wall 1977 noticed the brain contained ‘dormant synapses’ - neural connections which have no function. However, when brain damage occurs these synapses can become activated and open up connections to regions of the brain that are not normally active and take over the neural function that has been lost as a result of damage.

119
Q

What are Stem cells and how do they work as part of functional recovery.

A

Stem cells are unspecialised cells which can become specialised to carry out different types of task: for example, taking on behaviour of neurons in the brain.

Current research is examining ways in which stem cells might be used to aid recovery from brain trauma, for example they could be implanted to replace dead cells or to release substances which encourage growth or recovery of damaged cells.

120
Q

What can affect the the impact of functional recovery?

A

Age, there is a negative correlation between functional recovery and age, i.e. young people have a higher ability to recover which declines as we age.

121
Q

What can impact the speed of recovery from traumatic brain injuries?

A

Level of education is positive correlated with speed of recovery from traumatic brain injuries.

Schneider found that patients with college education were x7 times more likely to than those who did not finish college to recover from their disability after 1 year.

122
Q

What are the four ways you need to know of how to study the brain?

A

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Electroencephalogram

Event-related potentials

Post-mortem examinations

123
Q

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging?

A

A brain scanner which measures increased blood low to brain sites when individuals are asked to perform cognitive/physical tasks. Increased blood flow indicates increase demand for oxygen in that area. Thus, fMRI can help build up a map of brain localisation.

For example, an fMRI scan could identify brain sites which received increased oxygen when a participant is asked to move maths problems.

124
Q

What are strengths of functional magnetic resonance imaging?

A

fMRI is a non-invasive technique and does not expose the brain to potentially harmful radiation.

125
Q

What are the limitations of functional magnetic resonance imaging?

A

fMRI only measures blood flow- it does not directly measure neural activity and is not, therefore, a totally objective measure of neural activity in the brain.

fMRI may overlook the interconnectivity of the brain sites. By only focusing on brain sites receiving increased blood flow, it fails to account for the importance of brain sites connecting/communicating with each other.

126
Q

What is an electroencephalogram?

A

An electroencephalogram measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes attached to the scalp, and measures how electrical activity in the brain varies over time/ in different stages e.g. waking vs asleep.

Electroencephalogram readings can detect epilepsy and Alzheimer’s.

127
Q

What are the strengths of electroencephalogram?

A

Electroencephalogram have medical applications in diagnosing disorders such as epilepsy and Alzheimer’s.

Records brain activity over time and can, therefore, monitor changes as a person switches from task to task or one state to another (e.g. falling asleep).

128
Q

What are the weaknesses of electroencephalogram?

A

Electroencephalogram only monitor electrical activity in outer layers of the brain, therefore, cannot reveal electrical activity in deeper brain sites.

Not highly accurate- therefore cannot distinguish differences in activity between 2 closely adjacent areas.

129
Q

What are event-related potentials?

A

Measures small voltages of electrical activity when a stimulus is presented. Because these small voltages are difficult to pick out from other electrical signals in the brain, the stimulus needs to be repeatedly presented, and only signals which occur every time the stimulus is presented will be considered an event-related potential for that stimulus.

130
Q

What are the two types of event related potentials?

A

Sensory ERPS

Cognitive ERPS

131
Q

What is a sensory event-related potential?

A

A sensory event-related potential are those that occur within 100milliseconds of stimulus presentation.

132
Q

What is cognitive event-related potential?

A

Those that occur 100milliseconds or more after stimulus presentation.

133
Q

What does sensory event-related potentials indicate?

A

The brain’s 1st recognition of a stimulus.

134
Q

What do cognitive event-related potentials represent?

A

Information processing and evaluation of the stimulus.

135
Q

What are the strengths of Event-related potentials?

A

Event-related potentials provide a continue measure of neural activity in response to a stimulus. Therefore, changes to the stimulus can be directly recorded.

They have excellent temporal resolution.

They are much more specific to the measurement of neural processes than could ever be achieved using raw Electroencephalogram data.

136
Q

What are the weaknesses of event-related potentials?

A

ERPS only monitor electrical activity in outer layers of the brain, therefore, cannot reveal electrical activity in deeper brain sites.

A further issue its hat, in order toe establish pure data in ERP studies, background noise and extraneous material must be completely eliminated, and this may not always be easy to achieve.

137
Q

What are post-mortem examinations?

A

A technique involving the analysis of a person’s brain following their death. In psychological research, individuals whose brains are subject to a post-mortem are likely to be those who have a rare disorder and have experienced unusual deficits in mental processes or behaviour during their lifetime.

138
Q

What are the strengths of post-mortem examinations?

A

Allow for detailed examinations and measurement of deep brain structures e.g. the hypothalamus which is not measurable by brain scans.

139
Q

What are limitations of post-mortem examinations?

A

Various factors can act as confounding variables and might confuse findings/conclusions.

For example, length of time between death and post-mortem, other damage caused to the brain either during death or as a result of disease, age at death, drugs given in months prior to death etc.

A further problem is that post-mortem studies raise ethical issues of consent from the patient before death. Patients may not be able to provide informed consent.

For example in the case of HM who lost his ability to form memories and was not able to provide such consent - nevertheless post-mortem research has been donated on his brain.

140
Q

What are the 3 types of biological bodily rhythms?

A

Circadian rhythms

Ultradian rhythms

Infradian rhythms

141
Q

What is a circadian rhythm?

A

A type of rhythm that follows a 24-hour cycle e.g. the sleep wake cycle.

142
Q

What is a Ultradian rhythm?

A

A type of rhythm that occurs more than once a day e.g. the cycles of REM and NREM sleep in a single night’s sleep.

143
Q

What are Infradian rhythms?

A

Are rhythms that occur less than one a day e.g. menstruation (monthly) or hibernation

144
Q

What are biological rhythms?

A

Distinct patterns of changes in body activity that conform to cyclical time periods.

145
Q

What are biological rhythms influenced by?

A

Endogenous pacemakers.

Exogenous zeitgebers

146
Q

What are endogenous pacemakers?

A

Internal biological structures that control and regulate the rhythm.

147
Q

What are Exogenous zeitgebers?

A

External environmental factors that influence the rhythm.

148
Q

What are some examples of circadian rhythms?

A

Sleep-wake cycle once everyday

Body temperature (max in the afternoon 38 C and minimum in the early morning 36 C, may also slightly drop between 2pm and 4pm which is why we feel sleepy in the afternoon.

149
Q

What is the purpose of Circadian rhythms?

A

Optimise and organism’s physiology and behaviour to best meet the varying demands of the day/night cycle.

150
Q

What are circadian rhythms affected by?

A

The cycle is controlled by a ‘biological clock’ (endogenous pacemaker) but is also influenced by external cues (exogenous zeitgebers) such as light.

151
Q

What is the sleep wake cycle?

A

When we feel drowsy at night and feel alert during the day, this cycle lasts 24-25hours and is repeated daily.

This shows the effect of daylight, an important exogenous zeitgeber on the sleep/wake cycle.

152
Q

What is the role of endogenous pacemakers in circadian rhythms?

A

The endogenous pacemakers controlling the sleep-waking cycle is located in the hypothalamus. Patterns of light and darkness are registered by the retina, travel up the optic nerves to where these nerves join the optic chiasma, then pass into the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus.

If this nerve connection is severed circadian rhythms become random. The same effect is produced by damaging the SCN of rats, and people born without eyes cannot regulate bodily rhythms.

153
Q

What evidence is there that Circadian rhythms are primarily controlled by evolutionarily determined, biological structures that exert a strong influence on us to maintain normal sleep-waking patterns?

A

Ralph’s study

Yakazaki study on isolated lungs and livers

154
Q

What is Ralph’s study that supports circadian rhythms are primarily controlled by evolutionarily-determined biological structures?

A

Ralph bred a group of hamsters to follow a shortened 20hour circadian cycle. Suprachiasmatic nucleus cells were removed and transplanted into the brains of rat foetuses with normal rhythms. Once born, these rats adopted a 20hour cycle. Their brains were then transplanted with Suprachiasmatic nucleus cells from 24-hour cycle hamsters and within a week their cycles had adopted this new 24 cycle.

When cells from the Suprachiasmatic nucleus were removed from rats the 24-hour cycle of neural activity persisted in the isolated cells.

155
Q

What was Yakazaki’s study that supports that circadian rhythms are primarily controlled by evolutionarily-determined, biological structures?

A

Yakazaki found that isolated lungs and livers, and other tissues grown in a lab still persist in showing circadian rhythms. This suggests cells are capable of maintaining a circadian rhythm even when they are not under the control of any brain structures and that most bodily cells are tuned in to following a daily circadian rhythm.

156
Q

What do the Studies from Ralph and Yakazaki suggest?

A

All of this evidence points to the fact that circadian rhythms are primarily controlled by evolutionarily-determined, biological structures that exert a strong influence on us to maintain normal sleep-waking patterns.

157
Q

What evidence is there supporting that circadian rhythms are mainly controlled by Endogenous pacemakers rather than exogenous zeitgebers?

A

Siffre 1975

Innult Indians in the Artic Circle

158
Q

What is the study of Siffre 1975 and how does it suggest that circadian rhythms are mainly controlled by endogenous pacemakers rather than exogenous zeitgebers?

A

In 1975 Siffre spent 6 months underground in an environment completely cut off from all exogenous zeitgebers. Although he organised his time in regular patterns of sleeping and waking his body seemed to have a preference for a 25 hour rather than a 24-hour cycle. This implies that Circadian rhythms are mainly controlled by endogenous peacekeepers rather than exogenous zeitgebers.

159
Q

What is the study of Inuit Indians who live in the Artic Circle and how does it suggest that circadian rhythms are mainly controlled by endogenous pacemakers rather than exogenous zeitgebers?

A

Inuit Indians who live in the Artic Circle inhabit an environment that has hardly any darkness in summer and hardly any light in winter. if the sleep-waking cycle was primarily controlled by exogenous zeitgebers they would tend to sleep a huge amount in winter and hardly at all in summer. However, this is not the case - they maintain a fairly regular pattern of sleeping and waking all year around.

160
Q

What evidence is there that supports that human bodies are evolved for activity in the day and rest at night?

A

Heart rate, metabolic rate, breathing rate and body temperature all reach maximum values in the late afternoon/early evening and minimum values in the early hours of the morning. If we reverse our sleep-waking pattern these rhythms persist.

This indicates human bodies are evolved for activity in the day and rest at night and, indeed, being nocturnal or disrupting the circadian cycle is highly stressful and physiologically and psychologically harmful.

161
Q

Where is the endogenous pacemaker controlling the sleep-waking cycle located?

A

In the hypothalamus

162
Q

How are Circadian Rhythms regulated and maintained?

A

Patterns of light and darkness are registered by the retina, which travels up the optic nerves to where these nerves join the optic chiasma and then pass into the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. Where the endogenous pacemaker is located which will control and regulate the rhythm.

163
Q

What can cause circadian rhythms to become unregulated?

A

If the nerve connection that links the optic nerves to the optic chimes and then pass into the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus is severed circadian rhythms become random.

The same effect is produced by damaging the suprachiasmatic nucleus of rats.

People born without eyes cannot also regulate bodily rhythms.

164
Q

What are infradian rhythms?

A

Rhythms that last longer than 24hours and can be weekly, monthly or annually.

165
Q

What are examples of Infradian Rhythms?

A

Female menstrual cycle

Seasonal affective disorder

Hibernation

166
Q

Summarise the Female menstrual cycle.

LOOK AT THE FEMALE MENSTRUAL CYCLE AS IF IT SAYS INFRADIAN RHYTHM AS THAT IS WHAT IT IS

A

Female menstrual cycle is regulated by hormones, that promote ovulation or stimulate the uterus for fertilisation.

Ovulation occurs roughly halfway through cycle, when oestrogen levels are highest; usually lasts for 16-32 hours.

After ovulation, progesterone levels increase, ready for possible embryo implantation.

A typical menstrual cycle is approx, 28 days; however, there is considerable variation, 23 days to 36 days.

167
Q

What are infradian rhythms more effected by endogenous pacemakers or exogenous zeitgebers?

A

While it is logical to assume that infradian rhythms, in particular the menstrual cycle, are governed by internal factors (endogenous pacemakers) such as hormonal changes, research suggests that these infradian rhythms are heavily influenced by exogenous zeitgebers.

168
Q

What is Seasonal affective disorder?

A

Infradian rhythm related to the seasons (yearly cycle), that says people are more depressed in winter months due to increased production of Melatonin.

Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland at night, longer nights means more increased melatonin secretion which is linked to increase in depressive symptoms.

169
Q

What research is there suggesting that Exogenous zeitgebers can affect Infradian Rhythms?

A

Reinberg 1967 examined a women who spent three months in a cave with only a small lamp to provide light. Reinberg noted that her menstrual cycle shortened from the usual 28 days to 25.7 days. This result suggests that the lack of light an exogenous zeitgeber in the cave affected her menstrual cycle, and therefore demonstrates the effect of external factors on infradian rhythms.

Russell et al 1980 found that female menstrual cycle became synchronised with other females through odour exposure. In one study, sweat samples from one group of women were rubbed onto the upper lip of another group. Despite the fact that the two groups were separate, their menstrual cycles synchronised. This suggests that the synchronisation of menstrual cycles can be affected by pheromones (exogenous zeitgeber), which have an effect on people nearby rather than on the person producing them.

170
Q

What is a ultradian rhythm?

A

A rhythm that lasts fewer than 24hours.

171
Q

What are examples of Ultradian rhythms?

A

Human sleep patterns

Meal patterns

172
Q

What are the two types of sleeping patterns?

A

Rapid eye movement and Non rapid eye movement

173
Q

How often do human sleep patterns repeat?

A

Every 90mins during sleep.

Up to 5 full cycles per night

174
Q

What are the 5 stages of sleep patterns?

A

Stage 1 and 2 are ‘tight sleep’ stages: brain patterns become slower (starting with alpha waves, processing to theta waves).

Stages 3 and 4 are ‘deep sleep’ or slow wave sleep stage ( associated with delta waves)

Stage 5 is rapid eve movement or dream sleep. Body is paralysed; desynchronised brain waves.

175
Q

Evaluate Ultradian Rhythms.

A

Randy Gardener remained awake for 264 hours, after this experience, Randy slept for just 15 hours and over several nights he recovered only 25% of his lost sleep. Interestingly, he recovered 70% of Stage 4 sleep, 50% of his REM sleep and very little of the other stages.

These results highlight the degree of flexibility in terms of the different stages within the sleep cycle and the variable nature of this ultradian rhythm.

Tucker et al 2007 found significant differences between participants in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 just before REM sleep.

This demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in ultradian rhythms, which means it is worth focusing on these differences during investigations into sleep cycles.

Low ecological validity in some of these studies, the way in the research conducted such as sleep patterns participants are often to high levels of control and hooked up to monitors that measure their sleep patterns which can be invasive, which can lead them to sleep in a way that differs from their usual sleep cycle and as a result lacking ecological validity which could lead to false conclusions being drawn.

176
Q

When you think of Circadian Rhythms what must you think of?

A

Sleep-waking cycle.

177
Q

How does the endogenous pacemakers effect the sleep/wake cycle?

A

The suprachiasmatic nucleus is one of the primary endogenous pacemakers in mammalian species and is influential in maintaining circadian rhythms such as the sleep/wake cycle.

Nerve fibres connected to the eye cross an area called the optic chiasm on their way to the visual area of the cerebral cortex. The suprachiasmatic nucleuses just above the optic chiasm. It recieves information about light directly from this structure. This continues even when our eyes are closed, enabling the biological clock to adjust to changing patterns of daylight whilst we are asleep.

178
Q

What studies have been done showing the effect of endogenous pacemakers on the sleep/wake cycle?

A

Patricia DeCoursey et al 2000

Martin Ralph et al 1990

179
Q

What was Patricia DeCoursey et al 2000 animal study?

A

Patricia DeCoursey et al 2000 destroyed the SCN connections in the brains of 30 chipmunks who were then returned to their natural habitat and observed for 80days.

The sleep/wake cycle of the chipmunks disappeared and by the end of the study a significant proportion of them had been killed by predators presumably because they were awake and vulnerable to attack when they should have been asleep.

180
Q

What was Martin Ralph et al 1990 animal study?

A

Martin Ralph et al 1990 bred ‘mutant’ hamsters with a 20-hour sleep wake cycle. When suprachiasmatic nucleus cells from the foetal tissue of mutant hamsters were transplanted into the brains of normal hamsters, the cycles of the second group defaulted to 20hours.

181
Q

What do both the Animal studies on suprachiasmatic nucleus show?

(Martin Ralph et al 1990)
(Patricia DeCoursey et al 2000)

A

Both of these studies emphasise the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in establishing and maintaining the circadian sleep/wake cycle.

182
Q

How does the pineal gland and melatonin affect the sleep/wake cycle?

(PINEAL GLAND AND MELATONIN ARE PART OF THE ENDOGENOUS PACE MAKERS)

A

The SCN passes information on day length and light that it receives to the pineal gland.

During the night, the pineal gland increases production of melatonin a chemical that induces sleep and is inhibited during periods of wakefulness.

Melatonin has also been suggested as a casual factor in seasonal affective disorder.

183
Q

What Exogenous zeitgebers affect the sleep/wake cycle?

A

Light

Social cues.

184
Q

How does the Exogenous zeitgeber light affect the sleep wake/cycle?

A

Light is a key zeitgeber in humans. It can reset the body’s main endogenous pacemaker the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and thus plays a role in the maintenance of the sleep/wake cycle.

185
Q

What study showed that light is important but also that we don’t only rely on our eyes to influence the brain?

A

Campbell and Murphy 1998

186
Q

What was the Campbell and Murphy study and how does it support light as an influencer on the sleep/wake cycle?

A

Light may be detected by skin receptors sites on the body when the same information is not received by the eyes.

15 participants, whom were woken at various times using light shone on the back of their knees. Which produces a deviation in their normal sleep/wake cycle of up to 3 hours in some cases.

Suggest light is important factor affecting the sleep/wake cycle which doesn’t only have to be on our eyes it can be anywhere on the body.

187
Q

How can social cues effect the sleep/wake cycle?

A

Babies initial sleep/wake cycle is very random. Circadian rhythms start around 16 weeks.

Thus schedules imposed by parents are a key influence e.g. meal times and bedtimes in forming sleep/wake cycles.

Research also shows adapting to local time for eating and sleeping is an effective way of beating jet lag.

188
Q

Evaluate the weaknesses of animals studies used to show the role of the SCN on the sleep/wake cycle?

A

Generalisation issues

Ethical issues e.g. DeCoursey study- considerable harm and subsequent risk.

189
Q

Evaluate the effect of light on sleep wake cycle?

A

Siffre cave study evidence against the importance of exogenous zeitgebers, shows that light may not have an important effect on the sleep wake cycle.

190
Q

What are the practical applications of finding the effect of exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake cycle?

A

There is a practical application, that is using light exposure to avoid jet lag.

Jet lag can be a severe condition causing sleep, appetite and mood disturbance.

By understanding the role of exogenous zeitgebers have on our sleep we can decrease the impacts jet lag has on our sleep wake cycles.

Psychology A Level (10 decks)

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