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Psych Paper 2 > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Aims definition

A

A statement of what the researcher intends to find out

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2
Q

Define independent variable

A

Variable that is manipulated to cause effect on the DV

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3
Q

Define dependent variable

A

Variable that is measured and changes as the IV is manipulated

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4
Q

Define hypothesis. What are the three types?

A

testable statement of expected findings. Directional, Non- directional, null

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5
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

States expected direction eg better, higher.

Used when there is PREVIOUS RESEARCH to indicate direction

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6
Q

What is a non- directional hypothesis?

A

States difference but not direction eg difference, affects.

Used when NO PREVIOUS RESEARCH

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7
Q

What is a null hypothesis? What has to be added on the end?

A

a statement of no relationship between population and respect to variables.
… but if there is change it is due to chance

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8
Q

How would you start a written hypothesis?

A

There will be a significant…. (increase/ decrease/ effect/ positive correlation/ difference)

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9
Q

What are standardised procedures?

A

each pp does EXACTLY THE SAME THING IN EACH CONDITION. Consider: ethical issues, informed consent, debriefing

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10
Q

Define extraneous variable

A

A variable that is not the IV or DV but is controlled so it doesnt effect the DV

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11
Q

Define confounding variable

A

Variables that are missed and so not controlled so effect the DV and lower the validity

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12
Q

What is meant by balancing control and realism?

A

Control variables yet be be real enough to generalise to real life

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13
Q

Define validity

A

ACCURACY of results

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14
Q

Define internal validity and give examples

A

degree to which the research tested what it was intended eg demand characteristics, socail desireablility bias

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15
Q

Define external validity and give the three types

A

extent to which results can be generalised to the real world.

1) Population- generalise to population
2) ecological- Generalise to other situations
3) historical- genralise old studies to modern day

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16
Q

Define the scientific method

A

observation, identification, description, experimental investigation and theoretical explanation of phenomena

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17
Q

Define empirical methods

A

evidence gained through direct observation rather than thoughts and beliefs

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18
Q

Why does psychology opt for science?

A

no bias/ expectation, controlled, validated or falsified

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19
Q

Define objectivity

A

not effected by personal expectations

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20
Q

Define replicability

A

repeating a study to verify findings- usually different pp and different task

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21
Q

Define theory construction and state the difference between the two models

A

Set of principles to explain facts and enable predictions to be made an tested.
Inductive= theory at end
Deductive= theory after observations

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22
Q

What is hypothesis testing?

A

Conducting research studies to assess the validity of a hypothesis

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23
Q

Define falsifiability

A

Ability to prove something is wrong via tests- that an alternative may be correct

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24
Q

Define paradigm

A

Shared set of assumptions about a scientific matter

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25
Q

Define paradigm shift

A

progress in science causes questioning of accepted paradigm and when enough contradictory evidence paradigm shift occurs

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26
Q

What is a confederate?

A

person who ‘plays a role’- is part of the research set up but not a participant

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27
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

small scale trial run of a research design to make appropriate changes eg timings, variables

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28
Q

What is the repeated measures design? what are the limitations and how are they dealt with?

A

every pp carries out each condition.
L= order effects, guess aim
D= counterbalancing (each condition tested 1st and 2nd in equal amounts

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29
Q

What is the independent groups design? what are the limitations and how are they dealt with?

A

each group does one condition.
L= individual differences. more pp needed
D= random allocation

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30
Q

What is the matched pairs design? what are the limitations and how are they dealt with?

A

Two groups, pairs matched of key characteristic and put in different groups.
L= time consuming, difficult
D= restrict no of variables, pilot study

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31
Q

What is a lab experiment? what are some limitations?

A

controlled environment, pp aware of study, may alter behavior, unrealistic

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32
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

natural environment with controlled IV to measure DV

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33
Q

One strength of lab experiment

A

high internal validity, highly controlled, BUT low ecological validity

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34
Q

One strength of field experiment

A

more natural, BUT less control of variables- lower internal validity

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35
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

natural environment but IV is naturally occurring and not manipulated

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36
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

IV naturally occurring as naturally existing difference eg gender

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37
Q

Two limitations of natural/ quasi experiments

A

1) IV not directly manipulated so results may be confounding variable.
2) pp not randomly allocated- may be other variables, bias

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38
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

CONFOUNDING VARIABLE. cues that make pp unconsciously aware of aims of study so change behaviour

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39
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

CONFOUNDING VARIABLE. cues from investigator that cue behaviours that fulfill their expectations- direct or indirect

40
Q

Two ways to deal with demand characteristics

A

1) single blind

2) double blind

41
Q

What is opportunity sample? one + and one -

A

convenience or availability
+ easiest- less time
- bias

42
Q

What is random sample? one + and one -

A

equal chance of selection eg computer program
+ unbiased
- takes time

43
Q

What is volunteer sample? one + and one -

A

advertise for pp
+ variety of pp
- VOLUNTEER BIAS

44
Q

What is statified sample? one + and one -

A

collecting pp in proportion to group they’re representing
+ representative
- time consuming

45
Q

What is systematic sample? one + and one -

A

predetermined system eg every nth person
+ unbiased
- not completely bias

46
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

Conflict between what the researcher wants to do an the pp rights

47
Q

How many ethical guidelines are there? What are they?

A

6

  • informed consent
  • right to withdraw
  • deception
  • protection from harm
  • confidentiality
  • privacy
48
Q

What is informed consent

A

pp know true aim so can fully consent

49
Q

What is deception?

A

necessary to avoid demand characteristics, difference between withholding info and giving false info

50
Q

What is the right to withdraw?

A

important id pp distressed

51
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

leave study in same state as arrived

52
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

personal info only recorded is pp not identifed

53
Q

What is privacy?

A

not observed in certain situations eg own homes/ without awareness- invasion of privacy

54
Q

How do you deal with ethical issues in general (4)?

A

BPS give guidelines of which behaviours are acceptable.
Cost- benefit analysis,
Ethics committees,
Advice not punishment (should not must)

55
Q

How do you deal with informed consent?

A

give signed consent, use presumptive consent

56
Q

How do you deal with deception?

A

approved by ethics committee, fully debriefed

57
Q

How do you deal with right to withdraw?

A

informed at start that they can withdraw

58
Q

How to deal with protection from harm?

A

stopped if harm suspected

59
Q

How to deal with confidentiality?

A

use false names

60
Q

How to deal with privacy?

A

have to have informed consent

61
Q

What is a naturalistic observation? One strength

A

natural situation, researcher doesn’t interfere.

S- high ecological validity especially if covert

62
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

some environmental aspects controlled, reduces realism

63
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

pp aware of study, effects validity.

64
Q

What is a covert observation? One problem

A

pp not aware of study.

L- ethical issues (no informed consent, respect privacy)

65
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

observer watches from distance

66
Q

What is participant observation?

A

observer joins group, INTER-OBSERVER RELIABILITY

67
Q

What are unstructured observations? Two problems

A

record all relevant behaviour

1) too much to record
2) most noticeable not most relevant

68
Q

What are structured observations? One positive

A

decide relevant behaviour- behavioural categories

1) objective observations

69
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

behaviour operationalised and put into categories

  • objective
  • comprehensive (cover all possible)
70
Q

What are sampling procedures? What are the two types?

A

Ideally record every instance of behaviour. Gain estimate of frequency.

1) Event sampling
2) Time sampling

71
Q

What is Event sampling?

A

counting how often a certain behaviour occurs in a period of time

72
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Record what target is doing every 30 seconds (eg) by ticking checklist

73
Q

Self-report techniques: What are questionnaires? one advantage

A

pre-determined set of written questions that find out what people think and feel- objective and scientific if correct.
A- Easily distributed- large sample, more impersonal so personal info, reduces social desireability bias

74
Q

Self-report techniques- What are structured interviews? One limitation and one advantage

A

Pre-determined set of questions asked face to face. No deviation from questions.
L- interviewer bias- might be unconscious so should be trained
A- easier to analyse and form statistics

75
Q

Self-report techniques- What are unstructured interviews? One limitation

A

Starting questions but conversation changes depending on answers given
L- interviewer bias- might be unconscious so should be trained

76
Q

What is reliability?

A

CONSISTENCY of measurements

77
Q

Three ways to assess reliability

A

1) test-retest (same group, same task, time interval)
2) inter-observer (2 or more to agree on observations)
3) split- half (questionnaire- 2 sets of differently worded questions

78
Q

Three ways to improve reliability

A

1) reduce ambiguity of questions
2) operationalised behavioral categories
3) use standardisation of measures (same procedure for each pp)

79
Q

Two ways to assess validity

A

1) face (surface level- does it look accurate?)

2) concurrent (comparing existing results with the area you are interested in)

80
Q

Four ways to improve validity

A

1) (low face) make questions more relevant
2) (low concurrent) remove irrelevant questions
3) improve design eg double blind
4) pilot study (check ethics, methodology, feedback)

81
Q

Define probability

A

numerical measure or the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur

82
Q

Define chance

A

something without cause

83
Q

What level of probability do psychologists mainly use and what does it mean?

A

p= 0.05 (95% probability that the outcome is accurate, 5% due to chance)

84
Q

What level of measurement is used in more serious research or challenging research?

A

p= 0.01 ( 1% probability result was due to chance- results more accurate)

85
Q

What is a TYPE I error?

A

FALSE POSITIVE

significance level too low, results always significant so null hypothesis rejected falsely

86
Q

What is a TYPE II error?

A

FALSE NEGATIVE

significance level too high, results never significant so null hypothesis falsely accepted

87
Q

What is central tendancy? What are the THREE measures of central tendancy? Evaluate each

A

AVERAGES

  • mean (sensitive to anomolies)
  • mode (useful for nominal data)
  • median (ignores extremes)
88
Q

What are the FOUR LEVELS of measuremtent? (NOIR)

A
  • Nominal (categories)
  • Ordinal (ordered/ ranked)
  • Interval (equal intervals between units and CAN go below 0 eg. temperature)
  • Ratio (equal intervals between units but CAN’T go below 0 eg. money)
89
Q

What is dispersion? What are the TWO measures of dispersion? Evaluate each

A

SPREAD OF DATA

  • standard deviation- difference of each value from mean (effected by extremes)
  • range (doesnt account for data distribution)
90
Q

What are parametic tests?

A

more powerful. criteria:

  • interval or ratio data level
  • conform to normal distribution
  • no significant variance (spread of data is not 4x different)
91
Q

LEARN TABLE

A

LEARN TABLE- PHOTO

92
Q

THREE things to consider when writing a questionnaire

A

1) Clarity of questions
2) Bias- no leading questions/ social desireability bias
3) Analysis (open questions better but harder to analyse)

93
Q

TWO things to consider for an interview

A

1) recording (notes, audio, video)

2) listening skills- don’t probe questions, allow time to answer

94
Q

Advantage and disadvantage of open questions

A

A- qualitative and detailed answers that are insightful

D- harder to analyse

95
Q

Advantage and disadvantage of closed questions

A

A- easier to analyse and produce stats

D- forced to choose unrepresentative answers

Psych Paper 2 (4 decks)

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