Research methods Flashcards
1
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A statement of what the researcher believes to be true
2
Q
What does operationalisation mean?
A
Defined and measurable (categories of behaviour)
3
Q
Whats the difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses?
A
(i) Directional = changes are greater/lesser, positive/negative.
(ii) Non-directional = doesn’t state a direction, just that there is a difference etc.
4
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
‘Nuisance’ variables that do not vary systematically with the IV
5
Q
What are confounding variables?
A
Variables that change systematically vary with the IV; so we cannot be sure if any observed change in he DV is due to the CV or IV
6
Q
What is a demand characteristic?
A
- Any cue from the researcher/research that may reveal the aim of the study.
7
Q
What are investigator effects?
A
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the outcome of the DV.
8
Q
(i) What is randomisation?
(ii) What is standardisation?
A
(i) Use of chance when designing investigations to control for the effects of bias.
(ii) Using exactly the same formalised procedures for all participants in a research study.
9
Q
What do researchers use to see if the IV does have an effect on the DV?
A
Control groups for comparison.
10
Q
What are independent groups ?
A
One group does condition A, and a second group does condition B.
11
Q
Give 2 advantages of independent group designs
A
1) No order effects
- only tested once
= can’t practice or become tired/bored.
2) Will not guess aim
- unlikely to guess research aims
= more natural behaviour?
12
Q
Give 2 disadvantages of independent group designs
A
1) Participant variables
- participants in both groups are different (EV/CV?)
= less validity?
2) More participants
- need 2x as many as repeated measures
= expensive/time costs?
13
Q
What is repeated measures design
A
Same participants take part in all conditions of an experiment.
14
Q
Give 2 advantages of repeated measures design
A
1) Participant variables
- the person in both conditions has the same characteristics/
= controls CV
2) Fewer participants
- half of IG
= save time/money
15
Q
Give 2 disadvantages of repeated measures design
A
1) Order effects
- participants may do better/worse when doing a similar task twice
= validity
2) Guessing of aims
- may change behaviour
= validity
16
Q
What is matched pairs group design
A
Two groups of participants are used bu they are related to each other by being paired on participant variables that matter for the experiment
17
Q
Give 2 advantages of matched pairs design
A
1) Participant variables
- matched on variables relevant to the experiment
= validity
2) No order effects
- only tested once so no practice/fatigue
= validity
18
Q
Give 2 disadvantages of matched pairs design
A
1) Matching is not perfect
- time-consuming and can’t control all relevant variables
2) More participants
- 2x as may as RM
= time/cost expenses?
19
Q
How do you define a lab experiment?
A
- An environment whereby EVs and CVs can be regulated.
- IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded.
20
Q
Give 2 advantages of the lab experiment
A
1) EVs and CVs can be controlled
- effect of these on the DV can be minimised
= cause and effect between IV and DV demonstrated
= high internal validity
2) Replicable
- standardised procedure
= if results are same, increased validity.
21
Q
Give 2 disadvantages of the lab experiment
A
1) May lack generalisability
- environment may be artificial
- participants aware they’re being studied
= low external validity
2) Demand characteristics
- cues in the environmental situation
= results explained by cues rather than effect of IV?
22
Q
What is a field experiment?
A
A natural setting, IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded.
23
Q
Give 2 advantages of the field experiment
A
1) More natural environment
- more comfortable in own environment
= generalisable?
2) Participants unaware they’re being studied
- behave normally
= greater external validity
24
Q
Give 2 disadvantages of the field experiment
A
1) More difficult to control CVs
- observed changes in the DV down to CVs not IV?
= difficult to establish cause and effect
2) Ethical issues
- may not have given informed consent
= invasion of participant’s privacy
25
What is a natural experiment?
- Experimenter does not manipulate IV
- IV would have varied even without manipulation
- DV may be naturally occurring or measured by experimenter
26
Give 2 advantages of the natural experiment
1) Only ethical option?
- may be unethical to manipulate the IV e.g. studying the effects of institutionalisation on children
= only suited method?
2) Greater external validity
- involves real-life issues
= relevant to real experience
27
Give 2 disadvantages of the natural experiment
1) Natural event may only occur rarely
- natural events are 'one-offs' (reduced opportunity)
= limits ability to generalise findings
2) Participants not randomly allocated
- experimenter no control over which participants are placed in which conditions as IV is pre-existing
28
What is a quasi-experiment?
- IV based on a pre-existing difference between people, e.g. age/gender.
- DV may be naturally occurring or measured by experimenter.
29
Give 2 advantages of the quasi-experiment
1) Often high control
- controlled conditions
= increased confidence about drawing causal conclusions.
2) Comparisons can be made between people
- the IV is a difference between people e.g. people with and without autism
= comparisons can be made
30
Give 2 disadvantages of the quasi-experiment
1) Participants not randomly allocated
- no control over which participants are placed in which condition as IV pre-exisitng
= PVs causing the change in the DV?
2) Causal relationships not demonstrated
- does not manipulate/control the IV
= cannot say for certain any change in the DV was due to the IV
31
What is an opportunity sample?
People who are simply most available, e.g. asking the students in your class to take part.
32
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of an opportunity sample
(i) Quick method
- convenient as you make use of the people who are closest.
(ii) Inevitably biased
- unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area
= generalised findings?
33
What is a random sample?
Everyone has an equal chance of being selected, e.g. pulling names out of a hat
34
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a random sample
(i) Unbiased
- no influence over who is selected
= no researcher bias
(ii) Representation not guaranteed
- still may produce people who are keen/curious etc
= generalising?
35
What is a volunteer sample?
Participants selecting themselves, e.g. placing an ad in a newspaper
36
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a volunteer sample
(i) Participants are willing
- selected themselves
= likely to engage more.
(ii) Likely to be a bised sample
- may share certain traits e.g. keen and curious
= generalising?
37
What is a systematic sample?
Participants selected using a set 'pattern' e.g. every Nth person is selected
38
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a systematic sample
(i) Unbiased
- first item usually selected at random
= objective
(ii) Time and effort
- complete list of population is required
= use random sampling?
39
What is a stratified sample?
- Participants selected according to their frequency in the target population, e.g. gender/age.
- Relative % of the subgroups are reflected in the sample.
40
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a stratified sample
(i) Representative method:
- characteristics of target population are represented
= generalisability?
(ii) Stratification is not perfect
- strata cannot reflect all the ways in which people are different
= representation not possible?
41
What is informed consent?
- Get permission to make a judgement about whether to take part (or not).
42
What is deception?
Misleading or withholding info so consent is not fully informed
43
How would a researcher overcome deception?
- Giving a debrief at the end of the study
44
What should a debrief include?
- True aims of the study
- Details not given during the study
- Use of data acquired (about participant)
- Right to withhold data.
45
How would protection from harm be overcome?
- Right to withdraw at any stage
- Reassured that their behaviour was typical/normal during debriefing
- Provide counselling if necessary
46
How would a researcher ensure privacy/confidentiality?
- If personal details are kept, they must be protected.
- Refer to participants using numbers, initials or false names.
- Personal data cannot be shared with other researchers.
47
What is a natural observation?
Taking place where the target behaviour would normally occur
48
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a natural observation
(i) High external validity
- spontaenous behaviour
= generalisable?
(ii) Low control
- uncontrolled EVs
= difficult to detect patterns
49
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a controlled observation
(i) Can be replicated
- standardised procedures
= findings can be checked.
(ii) May have low external validity
- behaviour a result of the manipulated situation?
50
What is a controlled observation?
Some control/manipulation of variables, including control of EVs
51
What is a covert observation?
Participants are unaware they are being studied
52
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a covert observation
(i) Demand characteristics reduced
- behaviour more natural
= increased validity
(ii) Ethically questionable
- may not want behaviour recorded
= affect privacy
53
What is an overt observation?
Participants are aware of being studied
54
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of an overt observation
(i) More ethically acceptable
- given consent
= right to withdraw if they wish
(ii) Demand characteristics
- knowledge of being studied influences behaviour
= reduced validity
55
What is a participant observation?
When the researcher becomes part of the group they are studying
56
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a participant observation
(i) Greater insight
- researcher experiences situation as the participants do
= enhanced validity
(ii) Possible loss of objectivity
- researcher may identify too strongly with those they are studying
57
What is a non-participant observation?
When the researcher remains separate from the group they are studying
58
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a non-participant observation
(i) More objective
- maintains objective distance so less chance of bias
= increases validity
(ii) Loss of insight
- too far removed from those they are studying.
59
In terms of observation, what are behavioural categories?
Target behaviours to be observed should be broken up in to a set of observable categories = operationalised
60
Give 2 (possible) disadvantages of behavioural categories
1) Difficult to make clear and unambiguous
- should be self-evident and not overlap, e.g. grinning and smiling.
2) Dustbin categories
- all forms of behaviour should be in the list
61
In terms of observation, what is time sampling?
Observations made at regular intervals, e.g. once every 15 seconds.
62
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a time sampling in observation
(i) Reduce number of observations
- recorded at certain intervals than everything that is seen
= more systematic, structured
(ii) May be unrepresentative
- may miss out on important details outside of interval
63
In terms of observation, what is event sampling?
A target behaviour/event is recorded every time it occurs
64
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a event sampling in observation
(i) May record infrequent behaviour
- pick up behaviours that do not occur at regular intervals
(ii) Complex behaviour oversimplifeid
- important details may go unrecorded
= affect validity
65
Give 2 advantages of questionnaires?
1) Can be widely distributed
- large amounts of data quickly, researcher doesn't need to be present
= cost-effective
2) Respondents maybe be willing to open up
- less self-conscious
= less chance of social desirability bias than an interview
66
Give 2 disadvantages of questionnaires
1) Responses may not always be truthful
- respondents presenting themselves in a positive light
= social desirability bias.
2) Response bias
- may favour a particular kind of response, e.g. always agreeing.
67
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of an unstructured interview
(i) Greater flexibility
- points can be followed up as they arise
= gain insight
(ii) Difficult to replicate
- structure not standardised
= risk of interviewer bias
68
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of a structured interview
(i) Easy to replicate
- standardised format
= reduces differences between interviewers
2) Interviewer cannot elaborate
- cannot deviate from topic or elaborate on points
= lack insight
69
What 3 things should questionnaires avoid having (/doing) ?
1) using jargon
2) using double-barrelled questions
3) using leading questions
70
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of closed questionnaires
(i) Easier to analyse
- put into graph/chart form
= draw conclusions easier
(ii) Respondents are restricted
- forced into answers possibly not representative of true feelings
= reducing validity
71
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of open questionnaires
(i) Respondents not restricted
- more detailed, unpredictable info
= more validity than stats.
(ii) Difficult to analyse
- wider range of answers
- may be forced to reduce data to stats
72
How can validity of an interview be improved?
- Quiet room = more likely to open up
| - Rapport = being with neutral questions to make participants feel relaxed.
73
What is quantitative data?
Numerical data
74
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of quantitative data
(i) Easier to analyse
- draw graphs, calculate averages
= can see patterns
(ii) Oversimplifies behaviour
- using rating scales to express feelings
= individual meaning lost
75
What is qualitative data?
Non-numerical data expressed in words
76
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of qualitative data
(i) Represents complexities
- more details included, unexpected info
(ii) Less easy to analyse
- large amounts of detail difficult to analyse
= difficult to draw conclusions
77
What is primary data?
'First hand' data collected for the purpose of the investigation
78
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of primary data
(i) Fits the job
- info is directly relevant to research aims
(ii) Requires time and effort
- design may involve planning and prep
= secondary data easier to access
79
What is secondary data?
Data collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research
80
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of secondary data
(i) Inexpensive
- desired info may already exist
= minimal effort
(ii) Quality may be poor
- outdated/incomplete
= validity?
81
What is a meta-analysis?
A type of secondary data that involves combining data from a large number of studies
82
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of meta-analyses
(i) Increases validity of conclusions
- sample size much larger than individual samples
= extent of generalisations?
(ii) Publication bias
- may not select all relevant studies
- leaving out negative, non-significant studies
= bias, incorrect conclusions.
83
What is the mean and how do you calculate it?
- Arithmetic average
| - Add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores
84
What are the 3 measures of central tendency?
Mean, median, mode.
85
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of the mean
(i) Sensitive
- includes all scores within the conclusion
= overall impression
(ii) Unrepresentative
- distorted by one very small or large number
= other alternatives are not.
86
What is the median and how do you calculate it?
- Middle value.
- Place scores in ascending order and select value
- If two numbers = mean is calculated.
87
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of the median
(i) Unaffected by extreme scores
- median only focused on middle value
= more representative.
(ii) Less sensitive than mean
- not all scores are included
= extreme values may be important.
88
What is the mode?
The most frequent or common value
89
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of the mode
(i) Relevant to categorical data
- discrete data
= sometimes only appropriate measure
(ii) Overly simple measure
- may be many modes in a data set
= not useful
90
What are the 2 measures of dispersion?
Range and standard deviation.
91
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of the range
(i) Easy to calculate
- arrange values in order and subtract smallest from largest.
(ii) Does not account for the distribution of scores
- does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or evenly spread out.
92
What is standard deviation?
- Measures of the average spread around the mean
| ; the larger the SD = the more spread out the data is.
93
Give;
(i) 1 advantage
(ii) 1 disadvantage
.... of standard deviation
(i) More precise than range
- includes all values within the calculation
(ii) May be misleading
- may hide some of the characteristics of the data set
= extreme values may not be revealed.
94
How would a negative skew be demonstrated on a standard deviation graph?
- Distribution concentrated to the right; long tail to left.
- Mode = highest point of the peak
- Median = comes next (of mode) to left
- Mean = dragged across to left (if scores are highest to lowest)
95
How would a positive skew be demonstrated on a standard deviation graph?
- Distribution concentrated to the left; long tail to right.
- Mode = highest point of the peak
- Median = comes next (of the mode) to right
- Mean = dragged across to the right.
96
How is significance shown in Psychology? How is it found?
- Difference/association between two sets of data is greater than what would occur by chance
- Statistical tests.
97
What is determined at 5% or 0.05 in Psychology?
Whether to accept the research hypothesis or not.
If the research hypothesis is accepted = less than 5% probability that the results occurred by chance.
98
What is the calculated value compared with and why is that done?
- Compared with the the critical value (shown in table of critical values).
99
Before you find the critical value, what 3 things do you need to know?
1) Significance level
2) Number of participants (N value) and degree of freedom (df)
3) Directional or non-directional hypothesis.
100
When would the sign test be used?
- To analyse differences in scores between related items, e.g. participant is tested twice.
- Can be used with nominal data
101
Note all the steps of the calculation of the sign test
1) Score for condition B is subtracted from condition A to produce sign of difference (S) = either +/-
2) Total number of pluses and total number of minuses should be calculated.
3) Participants who achieved the same score in condition A and B are deducted from the N value.
4) The S value is the total of the less frequent sign.
- If S is equal to or less than the critical value, then S is significant and the experimental hypothesis is retained.
102
What is a peer review?
- Before publication, all aspects of the investigation are scrutinised by experts in the fields, experts should be objective and unknown to researcher.
103
What are the aims of peer review?
1) Funding - allocate research funding (what's worth it)
2) Validation of the quality and relevance of research
3) Improvements and amendments are suggested.
104
Give 1 advantage of peer review
(i) Protects quality of publicised research:
- minimises possibility of fraudulent research and high quality
= increased credibility and status
105
Give 3 disadvantages of peer review
1) May be used to criticise rival research
- other psychologists criticise
- competition for limited research funding.
2) Publication bias
- tendency for editors to want to publish 'headline grabbing' findings
= research that does not meet this criterion ignored/disregarded
3) Ground-breaking research may be buried
- more critical of research that contradicts their own view
= slow down rate of change
106
How does psychology benefit the economy?
1) Attachment research into the role of the father
- stressed importance of multiple attachments, role of father healthy in psychological development.
- promote more flexible working arrangements
2) Development of treatment for mental illness
- 1/3 of all days off work are caused by mental disorders
- resrarch into such topics means that patients have their conditions diagnosed quickly.
= access to therapies or drugs.
= can now manage their condition more effectively
= return to work!!
107
Describe what a case study is
- A detailed and in-depth analysis of an individual, institute or event; often considered 'unusual'.
- Produces qualitative data.
- Construct a case history of the individual using interviews - may be subject to experimental/psychological testing = producing quantitative data.
- Tends to be longitudinal.
108
Give 2 strengths of the case study
1) Offer rich, detailed insights.
- shedding light on unusual/atypical forms of behaviour.
2) May contribute to our understanding of normal functioning.
- e.g. HM demonstrated existence of separate STM stores ----> leading to revision of a theory.
109
Give 2 weaknesses of the case study
1) Generalisation
- small sample.
2) Info made into the final report is based on subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher.
110
What is a content analysis?
- Type of observational research in which people are studied indirectly via the communications they have produced, e.g. conversation. newspaper reports.
111
What is the initial stage of content analysis? What does it mean?
- Coding
- Categorising large amounts of data in to meaningful units, e.g. counting up the amount of times a word appears ---> quantitative data.
112
What is thematic analysis?
- A theme refers to any idea, explicit or implicit, that is recurrent in a study.
e. g. Muslims being reported as terrorists in newspaper.
113
Give 2 strengths of content analysis
1) Circumnavigate ethical issues of psychological research
- much of the info they use is in the public domain so permission is not needed.
2) Can be show in quantitative and qualitative data depending on aims of the research.
114
Give 2 weaknesses of content analysis
1) People tend to be studied indirectly, so the communication they produce is likely being studies outside of the context of which it occurred.
- research may add opinions and motivations to speakers that were not intended.
2) May suffer from lack of objectivity
- especially with descriptive forms of data.
115
Give 2 ways of assessing reliability
1) Test-retest:
- Simply administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person/group on a different occasion.
- If reliable; the results obtained should be the same, if not very similar.
- Must be sufficient time between test and retest.
2) Inter-observer:
- Interpretations of events may differ widely from someone else's, i.e. subjective, and potential bias = unreliability.
- Teams of at least two.
116
How would improve reliability of;
(i) Questionnaires
(ii) Interviews
(iii) Experiments
(iv) Observations
(i) Test-retest method
- low test-retest reliability would suggest some items needs to be deselected.
(ii) Use same interviewer each time
- if not possible, all must be trained to same standard.
- Unstructured ones that are free-flowing are more likely to be unreliable.
(iii) Exerting strict control over the procedures.
- Artificialness of the situation makes it easier to control.
- Replicable = reliable.
(iv) Operationalised behavioural categories
- measurable, self-evident and should not overlap.
; if not, observations could be subjective.
117
Is it possible to obtain reliability without validity?
Yes, e.g. broken scales may report additional weight - but it's not true to life.
118
What is internal validity?
- Whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not the same factor.
- Seriously affected by potential demand characteristics.
119
What is external validity?
- Generalising results to other settings, populations, eras and so forth.
- Ecological validity: generalising findings from one setting to another. E.g. Petersen + Petersen's lists of words lacks ecological validity.
120
What is temporal validity?
- Findings from a particular study/concepts within a theory hold true over time.
- E.g. Asch's study seen as 'Child of its time'.
121
What 2 ways would you assess validity?
1) Face validity - whether, on the face of it, it measures what it is supposed to - getting an expert to check (e.g.)
2) Concurrent validity - demonstrated when the results obtained are the same/similar to those obtained on another recognised test.
122
How do you improve validity of;
(i) Experimental research
(ii) Questionnaires
(iii) Observations
(iv) Qualitative methods.
(i) - Using a control group to assess whether changes in the DV are due to the effect of the IV.
- Standardise procedures.
- Single/double blind procedures.
(ii) Incorporating a lie scale within the questions in order to assess the consistency of a response and to control the effects of social desirability bias.
- Anonymity?
(iii) -High ecological validity and less demand characteristics from covert observations.
- Make sure behavioural categories are not too broad, ambiguous/overlapping.
(iv) - Interpretive validity of conclusions still needs to be shown; the extent to which the researcher's interpretation of event matches those of their participants e.g. direct quotes.
- Further enhanced through triangulation = using a number of different sources.
123
What 3 criteria must you take into consideration before choosing a statistical test?
1) Difference or correlation
2) What experimental design is being used.
3) Level of measurement.
124
How do you see whether its testing difference or correlation?
- Evident in the hypothesis.
125
What experimental designs are there?
1) Independent groups - conditions in each of the different (unrelated)
2) Repeated measures - the same participants are used in all conditions (related)
3) Matched pairs - participants in each condition are not the same but have been matched on same variable that is important to the experiment (related)
126
What 3 statistical tests are parametric?
1) Unrelated t-test
2) Related t-test
3) Pearson's r
127
What are the 3 types of levels of measurement?
1) Nominal data - represented in category form, e.g. how many girls and boys there are.
- It is discrete in that one item of data can only appear in one category.
2) Ordinal data - ordered in some way, e.g. rating how hot something is.
- Does not have equal intervals = can't say someone who found something 8/10 hot is 2x as hot as 4/10.
- Subjective = lacks precisions
.. Thus not used as a part of statistical testing, rather raw data is converted to ranks.
3) Interval data - based on numerical scales.
- Units of equal, precisely defined size e.g. a stopwatch.
128
If the statistical test is not significant, what hypothesis is accepted?
The null
129
What is the point at which the research can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis?
- (Level of significance) is 0.05 or 5%.
| - Can never be 100% as not everyone has been tested, 5% chance that results occurred by chance.
130
Once a statistical test has been calculated, what is obtained?
The calculated value.
131
What do you compare the calculated value with and what does this show us?
- Critical value
| - Shows us whether or not we can reject the null and accept the alternative.
132
What statistical test uses;
- nominal data
- independent groups design
Chi-square
133
What statistical test uses;
- nominal data
- matched pairs/repeated measures
Sign test
134
What statistical test uses;
- nominal data
- correlational
Chi-square
135
What statistical test uses;
- ordinal data
- independent groups
Mann-Whitney
136
What statistical test uses;
- ordinal data
- matched pairs/repeated measures
Wilcoxon
137
What statistical test uses;
- ordinal data
- correlation
Spearman's Rho
138
What statistical test uses;
- interval data
- independent groups
Unrelated t-test
139
What statistical test uses;
- interval data
- matched pairs/repeated measures
Related t-test
140
What statistical test uses;
- interval data
- correlation
Pearson's R
141
What is a one-tailed hypothesis also known as?
Directional hypothesis
142
What is a two-tailed hypothesis also known as?
Non-directional hypothesis
143
What 3 criteria do you need when studying a table of critical values
1) One-tailed or two-tailed hypothesis?
2) Number of participants in study, 'N', degrees of freedom (df).
3) Level of significance or 'p' value
144
What is a Type I error?
- When the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when it should have been the other way round.
- Null hypothesis is thus true.
- Researchers claims to have found significant difference/correlation when one does not exist; 'optimistic error'.
145
What is a Type II error?
- When the null hypothesis is accepted but it should have been the alternative hypothesis because, in reality, the alternative hypothesis is true.
- Pessimistic error.
146
When are you likely to accept each type of error?
(i) Type I - significance level too lenient, e.g. 10%
| (ii) Type II - significant level too stringent, e.g. 1%
147
In a psychology report, what is an abstract?
A short summary (of the investigation) including all major elements: aims and hypotheses, method/procedure, results and conclusions.
148
In a psychology report, what is an introduction?
- General area of investigation detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study.
- Should become more specific towards the end.
149
In a psychology report, what should a method include?
- Sufficient detail so it is replicable.
1) Design - e.g. independent groups, naturalistic observations and justification for doing so.
2) Sample - info related to people involved, how many etc.
3) Apparatus and materials used.
4) Procedure - standardised, step by step.
5) Ethics and how they were addressed.
150
In a psychology report, what should be in the results?
- Summary of key findings of the investigation; descriptive stats, measures of central tendency and dispersion.
151
In a psychology report, what should the discussion include?
- Summary of findings in verbal form.
- Should be discussed in context presented intro.
- Include limitations of study and how they'd be addressed for future studies.
- Wider implications - real world applications, what the research has made to existing knowledge of the field
152
What is a paradigm, and who proposed it?
- Kuhn (1962)
| - A shared set of assumptions and methods.
153
Outline paradigms in relation to social and natural sciences
- Social sciences lack a universally accepted paradigm.
- A natural science, like Biology, has core principles such as the theory of evolution.
- Psychology has internal disagreement = shown by different approaches.
154
What is a paradigm shift?
When a paradigm is questioned, a paradigm shift occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore.
155
What is a theory?
A set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain events/behaviours.
156
How does theory construction occur?
- Gathering evidence via direct observation.
157
Who argued the point of falsifiability?
- Popper (1934)
158
Outline falsifiability
- Theories should set themselves up for hypothesis testing and possibility of being tested false.
- Replicating and getting the same result does not mean it's true - it simply hasn't been proven false.
- Pseudo-sciences = unfalsifiable
159
What is replicability?
- Findings obtained must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances.
- Replicability --> (possible) increased validity if generalisable.
- In order to obtain this; investigations must be precise and rigorous, findings can be verified etc
160
What is objectivity?
- Keeping a critical distance during research - not allowing personal opinions/bias to discolour the data they collected or influence participants.
161
How is objectivity obtained mostly in psychology?
Lab experiments
162
What is empiricism?
- Direct experience.
| - Data collected from direct, sensory experience.
163
How is empiricism obtained mostly in psychology?
Experiments and observations.
