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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the advantages of laboratory experiments?

A

CONTROL - minimising effects of confounding variables
REPLICATION -
CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS - possible to establish if one thing causes another

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2
Q

What are the disadvantages of laboratory experiments?

A

ARTIFICIAL - they may lack ecological validity
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS -
ETHICS - deception is often used

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3
Q

What are the advantages of doing Field experiments?

A

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS - you can still establish these by manipulating the key variable and measuring its effect, although its more difficult to do
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS

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4
Q

What are the disadvantages of Field Experiments?

A

LESS CONTROL - confounding variables are more likely

ETHICS

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5
Q

What are the advantages of Natural experiments?

A

ETHICAL

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6
Q

What are the disadvantages of Natural experiments?

A

PARTICIPANT ALLOCATION - you have no control so confounding variables will creep in
RARE EVENTS - some groups of interest hare hard to find
ETHICS - has deception been used? Also has confidentially been compromised?

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7
Q

What are the advantages of Naturalistic Observation?

A

ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY - participant is unaware of being observed
THEORY DEVELOPMENT - can be useful method of developing ideas which can be funnelled into more controlled conditions later

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8
Q

What are the disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations?

A

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES - cant control variables that may have affected behaviour
OBSERVER BIAS
ETHICS - debriefing is difficult. Respecting privacy may be difficult. Getting informed consent may be difficult

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9
Q

What is the advantages of Correlational Research?

A

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS - these can be ruled out if no correlation exists.
ETHICS - can study variables that it would be unethical to manipulate

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10
Q

What are the disadvantages of Correlational Research?

A

CAUSAL RElATIONShIPS - these can not be assumed from correlation
ETHICS - sometimes causality is inferred from correlation

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11
Q

What are the advantages of Questionnaires?

A

PRACTICAL - can collect a lot of information quickly and cheaply

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12
Q

What are the disadvantages of Questionnaires?

A

BAD QUESTIONS - leading or unclear questions may be used
BIASED SAMPLES - the people who will respond to questionnaires may be unrepresentative
SELF REPORT - results may be unreliable because of social desirability bias
ETHICS - confidentiality can be a problem, especially around sensitive issues

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13
Q

What are the advantages of interviews?

A

RICH DATA - you can get detailed information

PILOT STUDIES - interview are a great way to get information before a study

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14
Q

What are the disadvantages of interviews?

A

SELF REPORT - can be unreliable and effected by social desirability bias
IMPRACTICAL - time consuming and requires skilled interviewers
ETHICS - confidentiality can be a problem especially around sensitive issues

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15
Q

What are the two types of interviews?

A

Structured interviews - set list of questions

Unstructured interviews - set of discussion topics only

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16
Q

What are the advantages of Case Studies?

A

RICH DATA

UNIQUE CASES can challenge existing ideas and suggest ideas for further research

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17
Q

What are the disadvantages of using Case Studies?

A

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS - little control over variables
GENERALISATION - results from single cases are difficult to generalise
ETHICS - informed consent can be difficult to obtain if the subject has a disorder

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18
Q

What are the main topics that you should consider when asked about advantages and disadvantages of different research methods?

A 
Ethics
Reliability
Replicability
Controlling variables
Sampling
Generalising results
Identifying causal relationships
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19
Q

What is a research aim?

A

This a statement about what the study intends to investigate

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20
Q

What is the research Hypothesis?

A

This is the statement of what is actually being tested. It is proposed at the beginning of a study

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21
Q

Name the two kinds of Hypotheses

A

Null hypothesis
Experimental (alternative) hypothesis - these can be…..
Non-directional hypothesis
Directional hypothesis

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22
Q

What is the Null Hypothesis?

A

This is what you are going to assume is true during the study.
Very often the Null Hypothesis is a reduction that there will be no relationship between key variables

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23
Q

What is the Experimental or Alternative Hypothesis?

A

If the study forces you to reject the Null hypothesis then you accept your Alternative Hypothesis.
So if your Null Hypothesis is that the two variables aren’t linked then the Alternative Hypothesis is that they ARE linked. OR you can be more specific and fine HOW they are linked using Directional or Undirectional Hypotheses instead

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24
Q

When is a Directional Hypothesis used?

A

These are often used when a previous study indicates which way a the results will go

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25
Q

When is a Non-directional Hypothesis used?

A

This would predict a difference but not specify which way. It is often used if there is not a lot of previous search in the area or when the searchers are unsure

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26
Q

What are the three types of variables that may be in an experiment?

A

Dependant variables
Independent variables
Extraneous (or Confounding) variables

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27
Q

What are Independent variables?

A

These are variables that are directly manipulated by the researcher.

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28
Q

What are Dependant variables?

A

The DV is the variable you think will be affected by the change in the IV. So the DV is dependent upon the IV.

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29
Q

What are Extraneous Variables?

A

Extraneous variables are other variables which might effect the DV

If they DO effect the DV then they are called Confounding variables

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30
Q

What is Operationalisation?

A

Operationalisation is showing how the variables will be measured.

Some variables are easy to operationalise ( height)
Other variables are harder (a mother’s love)

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31
Q

Name the three most common Research Designs

A

Independent Research Design
Repeated Measures Design
Matched Pairs Design

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32
Q

What is an Independent Groups Design?

A

There are different participants in each group

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33
Q

What is the advantage of an Independent Groups Design?

A

NO ORDER EFFECTS - no one can learn through practice or suffer fatigue effects

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34
Q

What are the disadvantages of Independent Groups Design?

A

PARTICIPANT VARiABLES - difference between people in each group might affect the result

NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS - you need twice as many participants as for the Independent Variables Design

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35
Q

What is the Repeated Measures Design?

A

All the participants do all conditions of the test

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36
Q

What are the advantage of Repeated Measures Design?

A

PARTICIPANTS VARIABLES - the same people do all parts so no individual differences to worry about

NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS - you need fewer participants that for the Other two research designs

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37
Q

What is the disadvantage of Repeated Measures Design?

A

ORDER EFFECTS - because the same participants taking part in all conditions then students could become practiced or suffer fatigue effects

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38
Q

What is Matched Pairs Design?

A

There are different participants for each condition but they are matched for important variables

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39
Q

What are the advantages of the Matched Pairs Design?

A

NO ORDER EFFECTS - there are different people in each condition

PARTICIPANT VARIABLES - important differences a minimised by matching

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40
Q

What are the disadvantages of the Matched Pairs Design?

A

NUMBER OF PARtICIPANTS - need twice as many than for the Repeated Measures Design

PRACTICALITIES - it is time consuming finding participants that match

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41
Q

Why would you choose to run a Pilot Study?

A

To try out your research design and troubleshoot any problems

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42
Q

How can you control variables so their unwanted effects are minimised?

A 
Counterbalancing
Random allocation
Keeping Extraneous variables constant
Eliminating Extraneous variables
Using Standardised Instructions
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43
Q

Why would a Repeated Measures Design use Counterbalancing of variables?

A

Mixing up the order of tasks in an experiment can solve Order Effects in a Repeated Measures Design

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44
Q

What good does Random Allocation do in a Independant Measures Design?

A

Random allocation means that everyone has an equal chance of being selected to do either condition - should eliminate bias

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45
Q

What factors would researchers consider to decide if a test had INTERNAL RELIABILITY?

A

INTERNAL RELIABILITY is when a test gives consistent results within itself. The SPLIT-HALF technique assesses this. A questionnaire is split in half - if all participants score similarly on both halves then the experiment has Internal Reliability

46
Q

What factors would a researcher consider in order to assess whether an experiment had EXTERNAL RELIABILITY ?

A

If the measure is stable over time or between people then the experiment has External Reliability.
This can be assessed by measuring
TeST-RETEST Reliability (does the same person always give similar results on the test)
INTER-RATER Reliability (do different assessors give the same conclusions?)

47
Q

What factors do researchers have to consider when assessing the INTERNAL VALIDITY of an experiment?

A

If an experiment shows that the results were caused by the manipulation of the variables rather than the effect of something else then it has Internal Validity

48
Q

What factors do researchers have to consider when assessing the EXTERNAL VALIDITY of an experiment?

A

If the findings can be generalised beyond the experimental setting than the experiment has External Validity

49
Q

What is Participant Observation?

A

This is when the researcher participates in the activity unr study in an overt way.

50
Q

What are the advantages of a Participant Study?

A

The researcher develops a relationship with the group under study

51
Q

What is the disadvantage of a Participant Study?

A

The researcher can lose objectivity

Participants can react differently if they know that a researcher is amongst them

52
Q

What is a Non-Participant Study?

A

This is when the researcher just observes covertly without getting involved

53
Q

What are the advantages of a Non-participant study?

A

The researcher can remain objective throughout

54
Q

What are the disadvantages of a Non-Participant Study?

A

The researcher loses some sense of the group dynamics by not being involved

55
Q

What are Structured Observations?

A

This is when the behaviour categories to be used are identified beforehand - researchers have to tick boxes

56
Q

What is the advantage of Structured Observations?

A

It’s easier to gather relevant data because you already know what you are looking for

57
Q

What are the disadvantages of Structured Observations?

A

Interesting behaviours could go unreported because they haven’t been per-defined as important

58
Q

What 5 things do you need to consider when designing a Naturalistic Observation?

A

Recording data (written, video, audio?)
Categorising behaviour - defining and operationalising
Rating behaviour - deciding on degree or coding behaviour - gives quantitative data
Sampling behaviour - how often and how long to observe for I.e.
Event sampling (only focussing on behaviour you are interested in) OR
Time-interval sampling (observing during set time intervals)
Inter-Observer Reliability

59
Q

What is the advantage and disadvantage of Event Sampling?

A

Advantage - researches know exactly what behaviour to look for
Disadvantage - potentially interesting behaviours could be ignored

60
Q

What is the advantage and disadvantage of Time-Interval Sampling?

A

Advantage - very convenient for researchers

Disadvantage - could miss interesting behaviour if it doesn’t happen in the specified time interval

61
Q

How would you ensure observer reliability?

A

Inter-Observer Reliability is assured by comparing data from two or more observers to make sure that they are giving the same scores
Need to train the observers and ensure inter-observer reliability before actual observation

62
Q

What are the 5 things to consider when designing a questionnaire or an interview?

A
  1. Type of data you want to collect - qualitative or quantitative and thus type of questions asked (open or closed)
  2. Ambiguity - questions must be specific not vague
  3. Double-barrelled questions - avoid questions that ask two things
  4. Leading questions - avoid
  5. Complexity - use clear English and avoid jargon
63
Q

What are open questions?

A

Questions where the participant can reply in any way. This gives detailed answers but hard to quantify and to analyse

64
Q

What are closed questions

A

These limit the answers that can be given. They give quanta give data, easier to analyse, but not so much qualitative data

65
Q

What special things do you also have to consider when design g an interview?

A
  1. How structured the interview will be - informal with few set questions. This gives detailed qualitative data but not quantitative or easy to analyse. Or structured with set questions and closed answers yielding more quantitative data
  2. Using a question checklist
  3. The behaviour or appearance of the interviewer - this could influence how the participants react
66
Q

What 3 ways are there of selecting a sample of participants?

A

Random Sampling
Opportunity Sampling
Volunteer Sampling

67
Q

What is Random Sampling?

A

Where every member of the target group has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

68
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Random Sampling?

A

Advantages. It is fair and the sample is likely to be representative
Disadvantages. A representative sample isn’t guaranteed.

IN PRACTICE A RANDOM SAMPLE IS RARELY USED

69
Q

What is Opportunity Sampling?

A

When researcher samples whoever is available and willing to be studied (such as students in a university)

70
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Opportunity Sampling?

A

Advantages. Quick and practical
Disadvantage. Unlikely to be representative of the target population so we can’t generalise the results

OPPORTUNITY SAMPLING IS OFTEN USED

71
Q

What is Volunteer Sampling?

A

When people volunteer to be in a study - suitable candidates are then chosen from these

72
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Volunteer sampling?

A

Advantages. If advertised widely then a large number of participants may volunteer. This would allow in-depth analysis and more accurate statistical results
Disadvantages. May still not be representative of the target population. Also, people who volunteer may be more cooperative than others.

73
Q

If people know that they are being studied they may show 3 effects. Name them.

A

The Hawthorne Effect
Demand Characteristics
Social Desirability Bias

74
Q

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

A

If people are interested in something and receiving positive attention they may try harder. The results will then be artificially high and inaccurate.
The opposite effect may happen. If the participants are uninterested

75
Q

What are Demand Characteristics?

A

This is when participants form an idea about the purpose of the study. If they guess what result is expected, they may try to please the researcher and the results will be inaccurate (or the opposite may happen)

76
Q

What is Social Desirability bias?

A

People usually try to show themselves in the best light. So they may not be truthful but give answers that are more socially acceptable . This would make the results less accurate.

77
Q

Researchers can affect the outcomes of observations in undesirable ways. Name two effects that show this.

A

Researcher (or Experimenter) bias - researchers expectations can influence how they design the study and how they behave towards the participants and thus produce demand characteristics. Their expectations may also influence how they take measurements and analyse data.
Interviewer Effects - interviewers expectations may lead to only asking questions that they re interested in. Or ask leading questions. Or focus on aspects that fit in with their expectations. Their behaviour and appearance can also influence participants.

78
Q

What are the 4 main ethical issues to consider when doing research?

A

Deception
Informed consent
Psychological harm
Confidentiality

79
Q

What are the BPS guidelines on Deception?

A

Deception should be avoided wherever possible and only be used where it is scientifically justified - when the study would be meaningless otherwise.
Deception shouldn’t be used if its likely that the participant will be unhappy when they discover the study’s true nature

80
Q

If a researcher does use deception, what should they do immediately afterwards?

A

They should reveal the true nature of the study to the participant and give them the right to withdraw the data you collected on them during the study

81
Q

What are the BPS guidelines on Informed Consent?

A

Participants should be given all the information they need to decide whether to participate in the research and shouldn’t be coerced or pressured
Some people may not be able to give real informed consent - for example children. In this case informed consent should be obtained from parents or guardians.

82
Q

What are the BPS guidelines on Psychological Harm?

A

Researchers have the responsibility to protect the participants from physical and psychological harm during the study. Any risk of harm should be no greater than what the participant may experience in their normal life.

83
Q

How do researchers keep confidentiality?

A
  1. Sensitive information, results or behaviour revealed through research will not be shared with others
  2. Information revealed through the research will not be shared unless the participant gives consent
  3. No information should be identifiable to an individual
  4. Participants should remain anonymous
84
Q

What are the arguments for and against animal research?

A

Support - valuable information gained and some research designs couldn’t be used on humans (like Harlow’s baby monkeys)

Against - some argue that is ethically wrong

85
Q

Do BPS ethical guidelines solve all problems?

A

Nope - psychologists who break the guidelines can’t be banned from practice - just from the BPS
How do you assess psychological harm? How do you assess whether deception was justified? How do you assess whether the end results justified the means? Difficult issues, all.

86
Q

What are the problems with data analysis from quantitive research?

A

Adequate data sampling
Representative population
Good Operationalisation
Researcher bias

87
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of quantifying qualitative data?

A

Can be limited use so need to translate it into quantitive data
The advantages of quantifying data
Easier to see patterns
Easier to summarise
Can do statistical analysis
The disadvantages of quantifying data are
Care is needed to avoid bias
Qualitative data is more detailed and this may be lost

88
Q

What are the 3 measures of central tendency?

A

The Mean
The Median
The Mode

89
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the Mean average?

A

Advantages
It uses all the scores in a data set
It is used to do further data analysis - standard deviation
Disadvantages
It can be distorted by outlier values (extreme high or low values)
It can give an unrealistic value as a result ( e.g. 2.4 children in a typical family)

90
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the Median average?

A

Advantages
It’s quick and easy to calculate
It’s. not affected by extreme high or low values
Disadvantages
Not all the values are used to work it out
It has little further use in data analysis

91
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the Mode?

A

Advantages
It shows the most common or important score
It’s always a realistic figure - not 2.4!
Disadvantages
Not very useful if there are several modal values or if the modal value is only slightly more common
It has little further use in data analysis

92
Q

What do Measures of Dispersion tell you?

A

Measures of Dispersion tell you how spread out the data is

93
Q

What are the Measures of Dispersion?

A

Range. Particularly Interquartile range

Standard deviation

94
Q

How do you work out Mean?

A

Add up all the values and divide by the number of values

95
Q

How do you work out the Median?

A

Put all the values in order and find the middle value

96
Q

How do you work out the Mode?

A

The mode is the most often occurring value

97
Q

How do you work out the Range?

A

Highest value - lowest value

98
Q

What is the advantage and disadvantage of using the Range?

A

Advantage
It’s quick and easy
Disadvantage
It can be misleading if there are very high or low values

99
Q

How do you work out the Interquartile Range (IQR)?

A

IQR = Q3 - Q1

100
Q

What does Standard Deviation measure?

A

Standard Deviation measures how much values deviate from the Mean

101
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using Standard Deviation?

A

Advantages
All scores in the set are taken into account, so it’s more accurate than the range.
It can be used in further analysis
Disadvantages
It not quick or easy to calculate

102
Q

What does Correlation measure?

A

Correlation measures how closely two variables are related

103
Q

What is the correlation coefficient?

A

A number between -1 and +1

If the coefficient is close to -1 or +1 then it is strongly related a smaller number means a weak relationship

104
Q

What does a positive correlation coefficient mean?

A

That the variables rise and fall together

105
Q

What does a negative correlation coefficient mean?

A

That one variable rises as the other falls

106
Q

What does a correlation coefficient of zero indicate?

A

That there is no correlation

107
Q

What are the advantages of correlational research?

A
  1. Because correlational research doesn’t involve controlling any variables, you can do it when (for practical or ethical reasons) you couldn’t do a controlled experiment - like correlation between smoking and cancer
  2. It can give ideas for future research
  3. Can be used to test reliability and validity
108
Q

What are the limitations of correlational research?

A
  1. It can’t establish cause and effect relationships - only a controlled experiment can do this
  2. Care must be taken when interpreting correlation coefficients - high coefficients could be down to chance. To decide whether a coefficient is significant, you have to use a proper significance test.
109
Q

What is Spearman’s Rho?

A

Spearman’s Rho is a Correlation Coefficient

110
Q

Name some ways to present quantitive data

A

Tables
Bar charts (for non-continuous data)
Histograms (for continuous data)
Frequency Polygons (showing more than one set of data)

Psychology Aqa As (6 decks)

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