Individual Differences Flashcards
Psychologists research individual differences. Name the 4 main approaches for doing so.
The Biological Approach
The Behaviourist Approach
The Psychodynamic Approach
The Cognitive Approach
Name 4 main methods for studying Individual Differences
Case Studies
Meta-analysis
Correlational Studies
Physiological Studies (like brain scanning)
What is Meta-analysis?
This where you analyse results from loads of different studies and reach some general conclusions.
Psychologists like to classify people - what is the DSM-IV?
The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
It contains all known medical health disorders and people can be rated on multiple axes/dimensions.
Name the study that showed how psychiatric classifications could be wrong
Rosenhan (1973) - being sane in insane places
Method: eight normal people got themselves admitted to mental hospitals by saying that they heard the word “thud” in their heads
Results: all were admitted to the mental hospital and it took on average over two weeks to get out! After this experiment, the embarrassed psychiatrists told him to repeat the experiment. This time the psychiatrists unmasked over 40 patients who they thought were in the experiment. And Rosenhan revealed no pseudo patients had actually been sent at all!
Conclusion: medical staff could not distinguish between sane and insane people.
Evaluation: field study so unable to control all variables. The pseudopatients did lie to get in - staff would not normally expect people to want to get in! Ethical considerations!
SEE YOUTUBE “Rosenhan’s Experiment:Being Sane In Insane Places(excerpt)” by ClassroomVideo
And YOUTUBE “Laing&Rosenhan-Being Sane in Insane Places(The “thud” Experiment)
What is Abnormality?
One definition is “Deviation from the Social Norm”
Another definition is “Failure to function adequately”
The idea of Mental Health varies across time and culture.
And may be biased by stereotypes, such as gender or race or sexual preferences
How can you define “Failure to function adequately”?
- Dysfunctional behaviour
- Observer discomfort
- Unpredictable behaviour
- Irrational behaviour
- Personal distress
If you can tick more than one box!
Jahoda identified 6 conditions associated with mental health. What are they?
- Positive self-attitude
- Self-actualisation
- Resistance to stress
- Personal autonomy
- Accurate perception of reality
- Adaptation to the environment
But…….
A violent offender may have a positive self attitude and be resistant to stress etc - but would you consider them to be in good mental health?
What symptoms does the Department of Health say are associated with mental illness?
One or more of the following symptoms (not temporary)
- Impairment of intellectual functions (memory, comprehension)
- Mood alterations
- Delusional beliefs
- Disordered thinking
What is self-actualisation?
Realising your potential, being fulfilled.
What s Personal Autonomy?
Being in control, making your own decisions
What is the problem with diagnosing mental abnormality?
Feelings are subjective - personal to the individual
Different approaches have different definitions of abnormal
There may be different causes
Labelling may change behaviour
What are the 4 different approaches to defining and treating abnormalities?
Psychodynamic
Biological
Behaviourist
Cognitive
What is the Biological Model of Abnormality?
This model assumes that psychological disorders are physical illnesses with physical causes.
What, according to the Biological Model, are the causes of psychological disorders?
- Genetics - like Huntingdon’s disease
- Neurotransmitters - for example, increased levels of dopamine is linked to schizophrenia - cocaine increases dopamine levels
- Infection - for example, syphilis causes delusions
- Brain injury
What research has been done into the genetic basis of Schizophrenia by Gottesman?
Gottesman (1991) - meta-analysis of twin studies
Method: meta-analysis of about 40 twin studies
Results: identical twins have 48% chance of developing parallel schizophrenia with twin
Conclusion: schizophrenia has a strong genetic basis
Evaluation: high ecological validity. Proves that it’s not all genetic - some other factor must be involved.
What research has been done into the genetic basis of schizophrenia by Heston (1966)?
Heston (1966) adoption studies
Method: Longitudinal study of adopted children of schizophrenic mothers and a control group of adopted children of non-schizophrenic mothers
Results: about 10% of the adopted children of schizophrenic mothers were classified as schizophrenic or borderline in later life. None of the control group children were.
Conclusion: suggests a strong genetic link
Evaluation: interview data may be inaccurate (social desirability bias).
How would abnormality be treated in the Biological Model?
Drugs - to reduce neurotransmitter levels in brain
Psychosurgery - brain surgery
ECT
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Biological Model?
Strengths
Scientific basis and drugs do help relieve conditions
Weaknesses
Drugs produce side effects and addiction
Psychosurgery is permanent!
May not be linked to a physical illness
What is the Psychodynamic Model of Abnormality based on?
This model is based on conflict in development
Freud’s division of personality into Id, Ego and Superego
Freud’s stages of development; oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
Conflict develops during these stages when the Ego is developed enough to resolve Id and Superego conflict. It appears after in life, triggered by stress or trauma.
SEE YOUTUBE “THE ID,EGO AND SUPEREGO-FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY” by digilearning
And “FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES” by ckgribben
And “FREUDIAN DEFENCE MECHANISMS FREE COLLEGE CLASSES PSYCHOLOGY 101 INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY COURSE” by Eugene Boyarkin
How is abnormality treated in the Psychodynamic Model?
Psychoanalysis
Name three psychoanalytical techniques of Psychoanalysis
Hypnosis
Free Association
Dream Analysis
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Model?
Strengths
Links psychological problems with biological needs
Offered therapy
First method to focus on psychological causes of disorders (before this it was seen as ether physical or evil spirits!)
Weaknesses
Dreams are very personal and subjective
Psychoanalysis takes a long time and is very expensive
Focuses on patient’s past
What is the Behavioural Model of Abnormality?
This model holds that all behaviours are learned, through classical and operant conditioning.
How can classical conditioning explain behaviour?
UCS (eg loud noise) triggers UCR (eg fear)
UCS Repeatedly presented with another stimulus (eg loud noise and rat) and triggers UCR (fear)
Rate triggers fear
(Little Albert experiment)
How can operant conditioning explain behaviour?
Actions which have good consequences through positive reinforcement (reward) or negative reinforcement (removal of something bad) will be repeated.
Actions which have a bad outcome (punishment) will not be repeated.
Explain why someone might develop a phobia of spiders
Person gets anxious around spider and avoids them. This removes the anxiety and acts as a negative reinforcement
Explain why anorexia can be explained with operant conditioning
Anorexics want to lose weight, so not eating is a positive reinforcement
How do Behavioural treatments work?
First They try to identify the reinforcer of the unwanted behaviour
Then they apply Operant conditioning therapies or Classical conditioning therapies
Name two behavioural therapies
Aversion therapy (alcohol given with a drug producing nausea)
Systematic desensitisation
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the behavioural model?
Strengths
Scientific and supported by many experiments
Can be very effective for treating phobias or eating disorders
Weaknesses
It cannot explain all behaviours and neglects genetics, biology and cognition
Not effective for all disorders, such as schizophrenia
Only treats behaviour, not the cause
What is the Cognitive Model of Abnormality?
This assumes. That behaviour is controlled by thoughts and beliefs.
Describe the ABC model - Ellis (1962)
A - Activating event (failed exam)
B - Belief Rational: “ I didn’t prepare well enough”
Irrational: “I’m too stupid”
C - Consequence Rational: “I’ll do more revision next time”
Irrational: getting depressed
Describe the cognitive triad developed by Beck (1963)
Negative automatic thoughts are linked in a triad
Negative thoughts about yourself (I’m stupid)
Negative thoughts about the world (Everyone thins so)
Negative thoughts about the future (I will never pass an exam)
How do Cognitive therapies work?
Cognitive therapies assume we can treat disorders by eliminating or changing the faulty thoughts or beliefs.
First identify faulty cognitions
Then disprove them and educate client
Together set goals to think in more positive ways
Focus on present and future, not past
Give two examples of Cognitive Therapies
Hardiness Training
Stress Inoculation Training
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Cognitive Model?
Strengths
Useful approach for depression and anorexia and often success in treatment
It allows a person to take control
Weaknesses
Depression may be caused by a chemical imbalance
Cognitive therapies may take a long time and be expensive
The person could feel that they are to blame for having the condition
