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Research Methods and statistics > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is a fact?

A

A statement about a direct observation that is so consistently repeated, virtually no doubt exists as to its truth value.

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2
Q

What is a theory?

A

A collection of statements which together try to explain a set of observed phenomena

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3
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A clear but tentative explanation for observed phenomena which can be tested

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4
Q

What do theories do?

A
  • define
  • organise
  • interrelate
  • explain
  • make predictions on which hypothesis can be based
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5
Q

What are the qualities of a hypothesis?

A
  • testable (can a test be designed to adequately test it?)
  • falsifiable (can a hypothesis be disproven)
  • all terms clearly defined
  • rational (must fit in with what we already know)
  • parsimonious (favouring simple definitions over complex ones)
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6
Q

What is a construct?

A
  • theoretical concepts formulated to serve as causal or descriptive explanations
  • can’t measure concepts until they are turned into operational definitions
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7
Q

What is an operational definition?

A

a concrete version of a construct

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8
Q

Constructs vs variables

A

Constructs are defined by theoretical definitions
TD: intelligence is the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge
Variables are defined by the operational definition
OD: The score on the standard test of intelligence

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9
Q

Types of variables:

A

Normal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

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10
Q

Normal variable

A

No way to put the categories in order e.g. gender, star sign

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11
Q

Ordinal

A

Variables can be ranked/ordered

e.g. position in a race (not necessarily regular intervals)

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12
Q

Interval

A

Data goes up in discrete regular (equal) intervals but there is no real zero e.g shoe size

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13
Q

Ratio

A

There is a real zero and there are equal increments between each data point e.g. height/age

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14
Q

what is an experimental design?

A

A design which allows yo to make causal inferences about the influence of one variable on the other. Allows us to determine causal relationships.

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15
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

The variable you are changing

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16
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

The variable that is being measured

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17
Q

Features of independent variables:

A
  • can have different levels
  • can be between or within subjects
  • can be a mixture of between and within if enough levels (mixed design)
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18
Q

What is wrong with between and within designs?

A

between: subject to variation
within: subject to order effects

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19
Q

What must you do in a between subjects design?

A
  • must randomise the participants in each group
  • stops you biasing your experiment
  • allows you to carry out powerful statistical test for analysis
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20
Q

What is the within experimental design also know as?

A

repeated measure

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21
Q

Within experimental design

A
  • each subject acts as their own control
  • fewer participants needed
  • order effects tho….
  • counterbalance to avoid this
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22
Q

Factoral design:

A
  • investigation of two independent variables on one dependent
  • shows us the effect of each IV independently and also the interaction of the two
    e. g. -morn shift and booze
  • eve shift and booze
  • morn shift and no booze
  • eve shift and no booze
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23
Q

Name the two different types of factoral design:

A
  • within (each participant exposed to all four levels)

- mixed –IV1 between –IV2 within

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24
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

An experiment where there cannot be random allocation of groups e.g. when testing gender

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25
Q

What is a true experimental design?

A

Where the experimenter has complete control and is able to allocate groups randomly

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26
Q

What is the problem with quasi experiments?

A

-it is difficult to control extraneous variables so difficult to infer causality

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27
Q

How to battle the problem with quasi experiments?

A

Match using the pair design

e. g. if want to test the prevalence in 18-25 yr olds in prison communities vs. general pop
- extraneous variables could be Q and level of education, so get a bigger non convict group and try to match the IQ and education level of each prison person to one normal person.

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28
Q

Sometimes in within design experiments you can’t counter balance. what should you do?

A

Split your groups in half and have a control group. it is now a mixed design experiment.

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29
Q

Explain the developmental experimental design:

A

When you want to measure a variable with age/over time
-between (cross sectional) -age group of 5 and age group of 10
Within (longitudinal)- measure the same kids when they’re 5 and again when they’re 10

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30
Q

What are the problems with the cross sectional design?

A
  • can’t randomly assign

- solution = matching

31
Q

What are the problems with the longitudinal design?

A
  • can’t counterbalance

- solution: control group

32
Q

What is the point of counterbalancing and random allocation?

A

-gives an even distribution of errors across IVs

33
Q

Talk about extraneous variable s

A

They are undesirable variables that add considerable error to our experiments. we want to eliminate or at least control their influence.

34
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Variables that disproportionately effect one level of the IV more than the other

35
Q

What is a type 1 error?

A

Finding a relationship between the IV and DV when there isn’t one

36
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A

Not finding a relationship between the IV and DV when there is one

37
Q

Confounding variables are bad because they are

A

threats to internal vailidity

38
Q

What types of confounds are there?

A
  • Selection
  • History
  • maturation
  • Instrumentation
39
Q

Describe the effect of selection:

A
  • bias the results due to the non random selection and allocation of participants to each IV level
  • results when subjects assigned to each IV are systematically different in a way that will effect the DV
  • especially tricky in quasi designs
40
Q

Describe the effect of history:

A

When an uncontrolled event takes place between the two testing occasions

41
Q

Describe the effect of maturation:

A
  • can come from growing up (did dyslexia improve because of training or just age) or from having done the same test twice
  • intrinsic changes in the participant between testing occasions
42
Q

Describe the effect of instrumentation:

A

The change of measuring instruments accuracy or reliability over the course of an experiment

43
Q

What is reactivity?

A
  • because they know their being experimented on/watched the participant may act in a different way than they normally would
  • can be the participant trying to please the experimenter (demand characteristics)
  • can be the experimenter inducing bias from their expectancies
44
Q

What can reactivity effect?

A

The internal validity!! if it influences on level of IV more than other

45
Q

How do we reduce reactivity?

A

blind experiments - experimenter or participant or both (double blind)

46
Q

What stems from reactivity?

A
  • experimenter bias

- demand characteristics

47
Q

Name the types of measurement errors:

A
  • random (obscure results)

- constant (bias results)

48
Q

What are the two criteria necessary to satisfy causation?

A
  • sufficiency

- necessity

49
Q

What is sufficiency?

A

Y is adequate to cause X

if you only have one variable you are showing necessity, not sufficiency

50
Q

What is necessity?

A

X must be present to cause Y

51
Q

What is precision?

A

Consistency –> reliability

52
Q

What is accuracy?

A

truthfulness/correctness –> validity

53
Q

Name the forms of reliability:

A
  • inter rater
  • parallel (if we test the same thing in a different way will our results match up?)
  • test reliability (if we administer the test on two separate occasion will we get the same results - used for things we expect to stay the same e.g. personality, not mood - beware of order effects!!)
54
Q

What is reliability continuity?

A

internal consistency - are all elements of our test (e.g. questions) measuring the same construct

55
Q

How do we test reliability continuity?

A

Internal consistency:
By ‘split test reliability’ where the test is split into two halves and given to P on different occasions. similar results = good internal relibility

56
Q

Forms of internal validity:

A
  • content
  • face
  • critereon (concurrent/predictive)
57
Q

What is content validity?

A

Does the test measure the construct fully? (all aspects of it or just certain parts)
e.g does the RM exam cover all aspects of the course

58
Q

What is face validity?

A

Does it look like a good test?

e.g. does the content of the RM exam reflect the knowledge expected of the students?

59
Q

What is criterion vailidity?

A

When you compare your results with an experiment that has already been done. do they correlate?

  • concurrent -do the results of the test correlate with the old one (e.g. correlation between scores on two different depression tests or exams in different subjects)
  • Predictive- does the test predict outcome on another variable (e.g. ambition and $$ in the future if you measured $$)
60
Q

How do we measure construct validity?

A
  • best measured over time but in the short term can measure using:
  • convergent validity - should correlate with similar constructs
  • discriminant validity - shouldn’t correlate with unrelated constructs
    e. g. if you make a test to measure happiness results should correlate with contentment but not depression.
61
Q

What is info about populations and samples called

A

parameters

statistics

62
Q

Why do we sample?

A

time
access
money
sufficiency (pattern of results doesn’t change much even if we use entire pop)

63
Q

What are the different types of sampling?

A 
Random
Systematic
Stratified
Snowball
Opportunity/convenience
64
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Each member of the pop has an equal chance of being selected
Usually quasi random
Not everyone picked will participate

65
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Fixed intervals

e.g. if every 10th participant was female

66
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Organised sample:

  • Disproportional - specified groups are picked in equal proportions, not representative of population group size
  • Proportional - specified groups appear in the same proportions as in the population
67
Q

What is a cluster sample?

A

Researchers sample an entire group or cluster from the population of interest e.g. a school class
-can introduce bias

68
Q

What is an opportunity sample?

A

People who are easily available are sampled

-can introduce bias

69
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

Recruit small number of Ps and then get them to recruit other people
-biases but useful if you want to recruit specific populations e.g. people with a speech impediment

70
Q

What are the types of external validity?

A

-Ecological
(does the behaviour measured reflect naturally occurring behaviour?)
-Population
(is our sample representative, did everyone complete the study coz if not random selection becomes self selection by Ps)

71
Q

What type of validity do naturalistic designs give?

A

High external

low internal

72
Q

What type of validity do experimental designs give?

A

High internal

Low external

73
Q

What does good ecological validity allow us to do?

A

Know if it will work/can be applied to real life

74
Q

What does good population validity allow us to do?

A

generalise our results

Research Methods and statistics (2 decks)

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