Research Methods 2 Flashcards
What are the types of survey?
Questionnaire and interview
self administered and interviewer administered
What are surveys often used for?
operationalising physcological constructs
What is the purpose of surveys?
Informnation gathering (split into exploratory and descriptive) and theory testing & building (split into explanatory and predictive)
what are the types of information gathering in surveys?
Exploratory: exploring how a situation made people feel for example
descriptive: e.g. no. of students enrolled in different courses across the university
What are the different types of theory testing and building:
exploratory: explain phenomena that gives rise to patterns
predictive: measuring realtionships between variables e.g. can the age a couple gte together predict their future happiness?
state vs trait
state fluctuates but traits dont
Why should you try not make a new questionnaire when one already exists for what you’re measuring?
- can use one thats been tried and tested before
- can then directly compare results
- saves time
whats are jangles?
when you think you are measuring somethingnew but are actually measuring something we already know
e.g. yo uthink your measurin ewmotional intelligence but are actually just measuring emotions
what are jingles?
when you think you are measuring one thing but actually are measuring 2 with 1 survey/questionnaire
what is piloting?
give your questionnaire to a small sample of people and give you feedback so you can
- see if there are any questions which are redunant/irrelevant,
- see if there are any questions thye left out coz its particularly confusing or sensitive
- if there were any questions they didnt understand properly
General guide lines for questionnaire writing:
-keep it short
-make sure its understandable (reader level 2)
-provide appropriate response options
avoid Ps having to chose between more than 1 correct answer or no correct answers
What questions should you start your questionnaire?
Demographic data collection. but only denographic characteristics that are relevant to your study
Advantages to open questioning:
- Can get responses you would never have expected
- provides more detail
- dont impose assumptions
What are disadvantages to open questions?
- longer and more difficult to analyze
- longer and more difficult to complete
what are the advantages of closed questionnaires?
- quick to complete
- easy to analyse
- standardised response
what are the disadvantages of closed questionnaires?
- can impose assumptions
- oversimplify complex issues
writing question guidelines:
- avoid double barrelled questions
- avoid ambiguous questions
- avoid double negatives (neg in question and in response as well as just in q)
- no leading questions please
- avoid technical terms
How to avoid response bias?
Social desirability effects:
-P responds in a positively bias way
-Identify with a lie scale
plant questions that you can spot if theyre lying (e.g. no matter who I’m talking to I’m always a good listener. if they respond def true you have to exclude their data).
Response acquiescence:
- people tend to agree rather than disagree
- need to include both positively and negatively worded Q
How to maximise response rates:
- keep short
- keep clear and simple
- including a pre paid envelope with postal surveys
- send a reminder
- offer an incentive
What a rating scale and what it used for?
- give them a statement and ask them to rate how much they agree
- measuring attitudes
What is a dichotomus rating scale?
give them just 2 response options
What is a multichotomous rating scale?
Give them several response options and they have to chose either one or multiple responses
(e.g. whats best revision? wtching podcasts. reading books. making notes…)
Whats a ranking scale?
Give them several situations they have to rank in order of e.g. which makes them the most anxious/is most important
What is a likert scale?
Give them several statements and make them choose from one response
e.g. winter is coming
1 2 3 4 5
(1= strongly agree, 5 = strongly disagree)
-important to balance positive and negative statements
-remember to reverse score neg statements (so 5 =1 point)
dont have to include a neutral response
too many response items (numbers) will give low reliability
Graphic rating scale
mark a point along a line to show agreement/disagreement
distance is measured after
Non verbal rating scale
no words needed. just point at the smiley/frowny face
semantic differential scale
the olympic games were:
valuable_:::::_:wasteful
scale questionnaries: considerations
internal consistenc7y. All questions should be pointing toward the same construct. If you have a P who scores highly on all Qs and thn really low in 1 take it out coz its not asking the right thing.
Balance - neg and positively worded questions
what is construct validity?
Does the construct we’re trying to measure actually exist?
should be measured over time
in short term can be measured by convergent and divergent validity.
what are theics?
systemising, defending and providing standards by whihc behaviour can be judged right or wrong
normative ethics:
the practical task of attiving at moral standards that regulate right and wrong
johnosn and turner 1939
stuttering experiment: children induced to stutter by pointing out all flaws in their speech
why wasnt the stuttering experiment okay?
harm done and orphans werent willing volunteers..no consent given
what is consequentialism?
arguing that end justifies the means.
What is utilitarianism?
emphasises the role of pleasure and happiness as a consequence of our actions. as long as it makes majority of the population happier its all good….this doesnt favour minorities..should lean towards liberty and freedom instead of happiness
what is dentology?
certain acts are right or wrong in themselves, not necessarily in terms of their consequences. treat each person as an end not as a means to an end - kant
phsycological egoism
- self oriented interests ultimately motivate all human actions
No such thing as a selfless good deed
Organisations involved in ethics guidelines
WHO - medical research
BPS -Psychological research
UREC - Manchester uni research
What is the BPS code of conduct?
- dont bring the profession into disrepute
- hold interest and welfare of Ps in highest
- Ensure interests of Ps always safe guarded
What are the BPS 4 moral principles?
-respect for dignity and autonomy of Ps
-Scientific value
-social responsibilty
Maximising benefit and minimising harm
BPS 4 moral principles: Respect for dignity and autonomy of Ps
- should volunteer, can leave (Ps not Ss)
- respect race/gender etc
- privacy
- tell them what its about
BPS 4 moral principles: Scientific value
- make sure you’ve really thought about confounds etc so your results have value
- accountanbility for research quality
BPS 4 moral principles: social responsibilty
- research should be about doing good
- purpose of research
- awareness of outcomes (predicted and unexpected)
- Acknowledge limitations (of techniques e.g. lie detectors)
- changing behaviour should be to promote good
BPS 4 moral principles: Maximising benefit and minimising harm
-assess and identify risks
(risk shou.d be no more than a P would encounter in their everyday life)
-put in place measures to mange and minimise risks
Main ethical issues to consider: (7)
- risk
- valid consent
- confidentiality
- giving advice
- deception
- debriefing
- professionalism
Risk definition:
responsibilities:
Potential physical or psychological harm, discomfort or distress
Identify potential risks, develop protocols for management and inform P of risk
More then minimal risks comes from:
- Vulnerable groups (disabilities, children)
- Sensitive topics (inform Ps before they come what they need to do/discuss beforehand)
- Significant deception
- Access to personal or confidential information
- Access to sensitive data via 3rd parties
- Psychological stress, anxiety, humiliation
- Invasive interventions or more than minimal pain (e.g. how do ppl change when v. thirsty)
- Potential impact on employment or social standing (what if an employer asks you to carry out on their employees…what are their motives?)
- Labelling by researcher or participant (especially with children) Ps can do it by the way their answering questions (am I autistic…?)
What are the two stages to getting informed consent?
What does the Participant information form describe?
- Instructing the P about the nature of the study
- Obtaining their written agreement to take part (excpetions: public records)
1. the nature of the study
2. any procedural risks/inconveniences
3. procedure for ensuring anonimity
4. voluntary nature of the study and right to withdraw (let them with no prejudice or reason, inform them when it will no longer be possible to wihdraw)
Anonimity vs confidentiality:
-A -online stuidy where you dont take any personal details from a P - as soon as submitted cant be withdrawn
C-name not left on their results-they’re given a code and that code is used for their data and the linbke between thier name and code is locked away
Cannot be A if you have any face to faceness conducting
With confidential data..when are you allowed to divulge it to an outside source?
Only if you have identified what threatening info you could uncover (e.g brain tumor in fMRI) and agreed with the P beforehand what ou will do with it if you find it (pass onto GP)
When should you gove advice to Ps after a study?
-If its intrinsic to the study
-if its been agreed beforehand
-if its been subjected to an theics review in advance
Finding unexpected issues:
-Duty to inform participant IF failing to do so endangers the participants future wellbeing
-BUT Should identify risk of such evidence emerging (off the autism scale doesnt count)
-Never give advice thats outside your scope
What are the two types of deception?
Commission and omission
What is commission deception?
actively misleading
What is ommission deception?
Withold some details of hypothesis
e.g. can only observe ppl in public places where they would expect to be observed in normal life…otherwise not telling them is deception by ommission
When can you use deception?
When there is strong scientific merit and there is no other way to achieve valid results
-if the P wont be upset by the decepetion
What is accidental deception?
- P misunderstands what is required in the study
- misrepresentations about amount of time required
- experimental ‘extras’ that arent explained to the P before obtaining consent
What is debriefing?
When Ps are decieved, they should be fully informed of the full details of the study so you can obtain informed consent at the earliest possible moment. and offer withdrawal.
-attempt to decrease any effects of any stress inflicted on the Ps
What does professionalism entail?
-Researchers must report their findings with honesty and accuracy
theres a problem with ppl wanting findings that tell us something coz otherwise wont get published
-Must not plagiarise
What should a P expect from a study?
PRE STUDY: -info about purpose/risks/rewards -opp to ask questions DURING STUDY: -Right to withdraw -no unexpected risks POST STUDY: Debrief -right to withdraw -opp to ask questions or see results (usually grouped results)
