Research Methods Flashcards
Define ‘experimental method’
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
Define ‘aim’
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.
Define ‘hypothesis’
A clear, precise, testable statement that sates the relationship between the variables to be investigates. Stated at the outset of any study.
Define ‘directional hypothesis’
States the direction of the difference or relationship.
Define ‘non-directional hypothesis’
Does not state the direction.
Define ‘variables’
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another.
What is the ‘independent variable (IV)’?
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured.
What is the ‘dependent variable (DV)’?
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.
Define ‘operationalisation’
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
What is meant by an ‘extraneous variable (EV)’?
Any variable, other than the independent variable (IV), that may have an effect on the dependent variable (DV) if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV.
What is meant by a ‘Confounding variable (CV)’?
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. Confounding variables vary systematically with the IV.
Define ‘demand characteristics’.
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.
Define ‘investigator effects’.
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.
Define ‘randomisation’ and give an example.
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
E.G. using random allocation- in an independent groups design with 4 conditions you might randomly allocate your selected participants into each of the groups.
Define ‘standardisation’
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
Define ‘experimental design’
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
What is ‘independent groups design’?
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
What is ‘repeated measures design’?
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
What is ‘matched pairs design’?
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one number of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Conditions B.
Define ‘random allocation’.
An attempt to control for participation variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.
Define ‘counterbalancing’.
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.
What is a ‘laboratory (lab) experiment’?
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
What is a ‘field experiment’?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
What is a ‘natural experiment’?
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV.
What is a ‘quasi-experiment’?
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person) - the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment.
Define ‘population’.
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.
Define ‘sample’.
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population i.e. it stands ‘fairly’ for the population being studied.
What are ‘sampling techniques’?
The method used to select people from the population.
What is meant by the term ‘bias’ in Psychology?
In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under-represented within the sample selected. For instance, there may be too many younger people or too many people of one ethnic origin in a sample. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Define ‘generalisation’.
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population.
What are ‘ethical issues’ in Psychology?
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
What is the BPS code of ethics?
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around four major principles: respect, competence responsibility and integrity.
What is meant by ‘pilot study’ and why is it useful?
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc., work and to allow the researcher to maker changes or modifications if necessary.
Define ‘naturalistic observation’.
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
Define ‘controlled observation’.
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one where some variables are managed.
Define ‘covert observation’.
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge and consent.
Define ‘overt observation’.
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
Define ‘participant observation’.
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
Define ‘non-participation observation’.
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
What are ‘behavioural categories’?
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable
Define ‘event sampling’.
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
Define ‘time sampling’.
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say, every 60 seconds.,
What is a ‘self-report technique’ in Psychology?
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.
Define ‘questionnaire’.
A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences
Define ‘interview’.
A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (as in a structured interview) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview).
Define ‘open questions’ and give an example.
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish; for example, why did you take up smoking?
Define ‘closed questions’ and give an example.
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter; for example, do you smoke? (yes/no)
What is meant by the term ‘correlation’ in Psychology?
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.
What is meant by the term ‘co-variables’?
The variables investigated within a correlation, for example height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause and effect relationship.
Define ‘positive correlation’.
As one co-variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise are positively correlated.
Define ‘negative correlation’.
As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, the following two co-variables: number of people in room and amount of personal space are negatively correlated.
Define ‘zero correlation’.
When there is no relationship between the co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru.
Define ‘qualitative data’.
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although qualitative data may be converted to numbers for the purposes of analysis).
Define ‘quantitative data’.
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.
Define ‘primary data’.
Information that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.
Define ‘secondary data’.
Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics.
Define ‘meta-analysis’.
‘Research about research’, refers to the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide a overall view. This may involve a qualitative review of conclusions and/or a quantitative analysis of the results producing an effect size.
What are ‘descriptive statistics’?
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.
What are ‘measures of central tendency’?
The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data.
