Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
Define Psychology
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.
Define Science
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
Define Introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Define Behaviourist approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
Define Classical conditioning
Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone.
Define Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
Define Reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative.
Define Social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
Define Imitation
Copying the behaviour of others.
Define Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
Define Modelling
From the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
Define Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.
Define Mediational processes
Cognitive factors (i.e. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.
Define Cognitive approach
The term ‘cognitive’ has come to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour.
Define Internal mental processes
‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.
Define Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
Define Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
Define Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
Define Biological approach
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as generic inheritance and neural function.
Define Genes
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and psychological features (such as mental disorder, intelligence). Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring, i.e. inherited.
Define Biological structure
An arrangement of organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing.
Define Neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that relate psychological functioning.
Define Genotype
The particular set of genes that a person possesses.
Define Phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
Define Evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
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Define Psychodynamic approach
A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
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Define The unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour.
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Define Id
Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification.
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Define Ego
The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.
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Define Superego
The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be.
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Define Defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego.
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Define Psychosexual stages
Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.
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Define Humanistic psychology approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination.
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Define Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
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Define Self-actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of.
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Define Hierarchy of needs
A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved.
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Define Self
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’.
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Define Congruence
The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
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Define Conditions of worth
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children; for instance, a parent saying to a child, ‘I will only love you if…you study medicine’ or ‘ if you split up with that boy’.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Define Free Will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Define Determinism
The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Define the Nature/ Nurture Debate
Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Define Reductionism
The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Define Holism
An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Define Idiographic Approach
Derived from the Greek ‘idios’ meaning ‘private or personal’. An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Define Nomothetic Approach
Derived from the Greek ‘nomos’ meaning ‘law’. The nomothetic approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws.
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(Comparing Approaches)
Some argue Psychology is not a science; what are the features of science?
- Paradigm- set of shared assumptions.
- Objectivity- all sources of personal bias are minimised to avoid distorting research.
- Empirical method- approaches based on gathering evidence through direct observation and experience.
- Replicability- extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated.
- Falsifiability- a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of bring proven false.
