Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

Define Psychology

Answer 1

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.

Question 2

Define Science

Answer 2

A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.

Question 3

Define Introspection

Answer 3

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.

Question 4

Define Behaviourist approach

Answer 4

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.

Question 5

Define Classical conditioning

Answer 5

Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone.

Question 6

Define Operant conditioning

Answer 6

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.

Question 7

Define Reinforcement

Answer 7

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative.

Question 8

Define Social learning theory

Answer 8

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

Question 9

Define Imitation

Answer 9

Copying the behaviour of others.

Question 10

Define Identification

Answer 10

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.

Question 11

Define Modelling

Answer 11

From the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.

Question 12

Define Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 12

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.

Question 13

Define Mediational processes

Answer 13

Cognitive factors (i.e. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.

Question 14

Define Cognitive approach

Answer 14

The term ‘cognitive’ has come to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour.

Question 15

Define Internal mental processes

Answer 15

‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.

Question 16

Define Schema

Answer 16

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.

Question 17

Define Inference

Answer 17

The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.

Question 18

Define Cognitive neuroscience

Answer 18

The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.

Question 19

Define Biological approach

Answer 19

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as generic inheritance and neural function.

Question 20

Define Genes

Answer 20

They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and psychological features (such as mental disorder, intelligence). Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring, i.e. inherited.

Question 21

Define Biological structure

Answer 21

An arrangement of organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing.

Question 22

Define Neurochemistry

Answer 22

Relating to chemicals in the brain that relate psychological functioning.

Question 23

Define Genotype

Answer 23

The particular set of genes that a person possesses.

Question 24

Define Phenotype

Answer 24

The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.

Question 25

Define Evolution

Answer 25

The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.

Question 26

A Level Only

Define Psychodynamic approach

Answer 26

A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

Question 27

A Level Only

Define The unconscious

Answer 27

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour.

Question 28

A Level Only

Define Id

Answer 28

Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification.

Question 29

A Level Only

Define Ego

Answer 29

The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.

Question 30

A Level Only

Define Superego

Answer 30

The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be.

Question 31

A Level Only

Define Defence mechanisms

Answer 31

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego.

Question 32

A Level Only

Define Psychosexual stages

Answer 32

Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.

Question 33

A Level Only

Define Humanistic psychology approach

Answer 33

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination.

Question 34

A Level Only

Define Free will

Answer 34

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.

Question 35

A Level Only

Define Self-actualisation

Answer 35

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of.

Question 36

A Level Only

Define Hierarchy of needs

Answer 36

A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved.

Question 37

A Level Only

Define Self

Answer 37

The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’.

Question 38

A Level Only

Define Congruence

Answer 38

The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.

Question 39

A Level Only

Define Conditions of worth

Answer 39

When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children; for instance, a parent saying to a child, ‘I will only love you if…you study medicine’ or ‘ if you split up with that boy’.

Question 40

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Define Free Will

Answer 40

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors.

Question 41

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Define Determinism

Answer 41

The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something.

Question 42

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Define the Nature/ Nurture Debate

Answer 42

Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics.

Question 43

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Define Reductionism

Answer 43

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts.

Question 44

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Define Holism

Answer 44

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts.

Question 45

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Define Idiographic Approach

Answer 45

Derived from the Greek ‘idios’ meaning ‘private or personal’. An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.

Question 46

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Define Nomothetic Approach

Answer 46

Derived from the Greek ‘nomos’ meaning ‘law’. The nomothetic approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws.

Question 47

A Level Only
(Comparing Approaches)
Some argue Psychology is not a science; what are the features of science?

Answer 47

• Paradigm- set of shared assumptions.
• Objectivity- all sources of personal bias are minimised to avoid distorting research.
• Empirical method- approaches based on gathering evidence through direct observation and experience.
• Replicability- extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated.
• Falsifiability- a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of bring proven false.