Research methods Flashcards
Define Nominal data
Data collected in categories rather than given a numerical score
Define Ordinal data
Data that is put into a order (ratings/ranked)
Define Ratio data
Interval data with an absolute zero (no negative scores)
Example of Nominal data
Category- occupation, location, hair colour
Example of Ordinal data
Interval data- ratings of attractiveness or aggression
Example of Ratio data
Number of words recalled or height
Name all the statistical tests
Chi-squared
Mann-U Whitney
Spearman’s
Wilcoxon T test
Chi-squared test
- Independent measures design
- Association
- Nominal
Mann-U Whitney test
- Independent measures design
- Difference
Spearman’s test
- Relationship
- Correlation
Wilcoxon test
- Repeated measures design
- Difference
Define Objectivity
An objective account is impartial and could be ideally accepted by any subject because it does not draw on any assumptions, prejudices or values of particular subjects.
What problems are there in regard to objectivity?
Biases
Interpretation
What are the two senses of the term replicability?
The replicability of a procedure
The replicability of results
Define replicability in terms of procedure
A study can be repeated in the same way
How do you make a procedure replicable?
Methods section:
Standardised instructions, controls, materials, sample details and timings e.t.c
Define replicability in terms of results
If the study is repeated results will be the same
What does it mean if the results are not replicable?
The empirical claim of the research is questionable (a certain phenomena occurs)
Support for theory is undermined
Example of a study that has high replicability
Milgram’s study
What is a theory?
A theory is an explanation of why things happen the way they do
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a testable prediction
How is a hypothesis tested?
Using empirical methods like observing and measuring phenomenon using systematic technique for collecting data
Define triangulation
More than one source of data of different types- improves likelihood that findings are genuine and provide better support for a theory
What do reviews help identify?
Reviews allow researchers identify overall trends in findings
Disadvantage of Reviews
Often invalidated by cherry picking- only including studies that support authors viewpoint, harder to trust results
How to overcome cherry picking?
Do a meta analysis
Advantages of meta analysis’
More sophisticated form of a review
Less likely to involve cherry picking findings
Methodological criteria used which enables others to replicate the study, check results and update the study
Identify a study where there is triangulation of findings
MSM
Milgram
Identify one study where cross cultural research has been extensively conducted
Strange situation
Milgram
Identify possible methodological criteria that could be applied for inclusion of a study in a meta analysis
Minimum sample size
Well controlled variables
Random allocation, blind trial
Steps of Peer review
Research submitted to a journal in a standard format (abstract, introduction, method, results and discussion)
The reviewer should be experts in their field and be competent to judge the merits of the paper
Blind reviewing processes is ideal so identity of research is anonymous and they would review the methodology without looking at results
Research accepted or rejected for publication on accepted on certain conditions like modifications or extensions are made.
Evaluation of Peer review:
+Anonymity used to remove bias
- Not always possible to find expert in the field
- Publication bias (prefer to publish positive results)
- If fault found later can’t be removed
Point of peer review
Peer review process is designed to ensure that good quality research that increases the knowledge base of psychology is published.
What are hypotheses?
Specific, testable statements of prediction, it states what the research expects to find out
To operationalise the hypotheses you need to early state how the IV will be manipulated and how the DV will be measured.
IV- Independent Variable (what you change)
DV- Dependent Variable
What is a Null hypothesis
Statement of no difference
Directional Hypothesis
1-tailed test
States the direction of the predicted difference
Non-directional hypothesis
2-tailed hypothesis
States there will be a difference but we don’t know what direction that difference will be
Significance
P
Type 1 errors
Rejecting Null hypothesis that is true
Type 2 errors
Accepting Null hypothesis that is fake
Likely to occur if the probability is too stringent
Content analysis
Changing qualitative data into quantitive data so it can be statistically analysed
+Inter-rater reliability can be easily tested
+Unobtrusive
- Highly subjective
- Time Consuming
- Reductionist
Steps of psychological report
Title Abstract Introduction Hypotheses Method Results Discussion References Appendices
Lab study
+ Internal Validity = controlled variables
+ Control Increases replicability and if consistent results are achieved reliability
- Demand characteristics due to set out
- May have reduced external validity as experiments aren’t generalisable to real life
Field Study
+ Experimenter effects/demand characteristics reduced
+ Higher ecological validity as it’s a natural setting
- Less control over extraneous variables
- Demand characteristics may be present if ppts know they’re being studied
Natural experiment
+Effects of privation
+ No Demand characteristics
- Validity may be reduced, no random allocation
- Low replicability
Correlation
+ Shows relationships
+ Can be conducted on a lot of data
+ Easily replicated
- No cause/effect can be established
- May lack internal/external validity
Observation
+ Rich data as natural behaviour is observed
- Demand characteristics in overt observations
- Observer bias
- Inter-rater reliability should be used to test
Self report techniques
+Large samples fairly quickly
+ Open questions used for quantitative data easily analysed
+Closed questions for qualitative
- Social desirability bias
- Leading questions could reduce validity
- Close questions can reduce validity as it may not allow full response
Opportunity sample method
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.
+ Easy to conduct
+ Easy to get large samples
- Biased (selection bias by researcher, non verbal clues)
- Only allows a small sample of target population
- May not be representative
Volunteer Sampling
A sampling technique that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample.
+Quick
+reach a wide variety of people
- Those who volunteer may not be representative of the target population as they may be more motivated/outgoing
Random sampling
A group of participants selected using a random technique so that every member of the target population has an equal chance.
+ Less biased
-Still same bias as some people may refuse to take part
List of ethical issues
Informed consent
Confidentiality and anonymity
Right to withdraw at any time
Protection from harm
Deception
Debriefing
How to test internal reliability?
Split-half method where test is split in two and you need a strong correlation between both halves
Counterbalancing
How to test external reliability?
Tested using test-retest method on same participants however this requires a gap between 1st and 2nd test.
What is internal validity?
How well the method being used measures what you set out to measure
What is external validity?
How well the research can be applied to the real world
Empirical methods
A method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing.
Independent variable
A variable that is directly manipulated by the experimenter.
Dependent variable
A measurable outcome of the action of the independent variable in an experiment.
Replicability
If findings from a study are true it is possible to obtain the same findings if the study is repeated.
Falsification
The attempt to prove something wrong.
Peer review
the practice used by academic journals and research assessments of using experts to assess other experts.
Reliability
A measure of consistency within a set of scores or items and also over time to obtain the same results on subsequent occasions.
Internal reliability
A measure of the extent to which something is consistent with itself.
External reliability
A calculation of the extent to which a measure varies from another measure of the same thing over time.
Validity
Refers to legitimacy of a study, the extent to which the findings can be applied beyond the research setting.
Qualitative data
Data that expresses the ‘quality’ of things. Cannot be counted or quantified.
Quantitative data
Quantitative data Data that represents a number of something.
Independent groups design
Each ppts only assigned to one condition of the independent variable
Repeated measures design
Each ppts is assigned to more than one condition of the independent variable
Experimental groups consist of exactly the same ppts repeating the same task but under a different condition
Matched pairs design
2 equal groups of participants and each ppts is matched with a similar ppts in the other group
Both groups take part in different conditions of the independent variable as with independent groups.
