Research Methods Flashcards
Reliability
Measure of consistency within set scores & items and also across time.
Therefore, is it possible to obtain the same results on subsequent occasions when the same ….(method, test, measuring implement) is used
Empirical Measures
The ensuring that a statement is true through direct observation and collection of facts, rather than through reasoned argument
Evidence rather than logic
Objectivity
The research must not be affected by the expectations or wishes of the researcher.
To achieve objectivity, systematic data collection and controlled conditions are preferable (therefore a lab experiment is best) using an impartial experimenter who will not bias the outcome of the study
Theory construction
A collection of general principles which can explain facts and predict natural phenomenon.
Theories are modified through hypothesis testing
falsification
The process of proving a theory to be correct by trying to find ways of disproving it. If we repeatedly fail we can be reasonably sure of the theory’s validity. Theories must be able to be disproved (evolutionary theories often cannot)
Hypothesis testing
The predictions generated by the theory form a hypothesis which is tested in order to ascertain the validity of the theory and modify it if necessary (falsification is used)
Induction
reasoning from the particular to the general. Repeatedly observing (like Newton) -> drawing conclusions from hypothesis testing -> generalising to general law (theory)
Deduction
From the general to the specific. Proposing a theory then generating hypothesis to test in specific situations in order to find instances than support or challenge the theory (eg. Darwin)
Problems with Psychology as a science
Science is nomothetic - it makes generalisations
Some psychology is ideographic - it studies individuals and specifics. Individual people do not always conform to tidy patterns or fit with general principles. They won’t always act the same each time.
Psychology tests things that cannot be measured. Eg. Clark and Mills test ‘love’ in relationships. ‘de-individuation’, a ‘phonological loop’, all concepts not solid, testable facts
There are problems with participant effects and conformation bias etc. which compromise validity. While these also exist in regular science they can be more of an issue when testing people
Science is reductionist, people and their situations are holistic. Science is also determinist (looking for causes) this has implications for applying to people.
What are the positives about psychology as a science?
Empirical evidence is desirable. It means more people will accept the findings and statements of psychologists if there is valid ‘empirical’ (factual) support to back up their claims
Most psychologists do conduct well controlled experiments on their models and theories which enable the models to be falsified. They aim to control EVs and reduce subjectivity and bias, just like regular scientists.
Why is peer review useful?
Allows rankings of research and universities. This allows the government to allocate research funding to specific areas and institutions.
It allows psychologists to share and learn what current research is being conducted in their field, keeping them up to date with developments.
It prevents faulty research from entering the public domain and being relied on by the gullible public.
What are the problems with Peer review?
Anonymity- while it’s aim is to increase objectivity, it can result in researchers settling old scores or burying rival pieces of research
Publication bias: interesting or positive research is more likely to get read and published. Boring research which may accept the null hyp or confirm previous research can get pushed aside. On the opposite side of the spectrum, research which seriously disrupts the status quo (disproving existing theories or accepted ideas) will be viewed with suspicion. Change may therefore be slowed down.
It can be difficult to find an expert in obscure areas, poor research may be passed because it was not understood
Once published, poor research continues to be use, even if it is debunked.
What are the major features of science according to the spec?
replicability objectivity theory construction hypothesis testing the use of empirical methods
What are the different types of sampling techniques?
Opportunity sampling Volunteer sampling random sampling stratified and quota sampling (snowball sampling)
Stratified sampling
Before sampling, the target population is divided into subgroups based on characteristics important for the research. If 35% of the pop are left handed then left handers will be randomly selected to fill 35% of the sample.
quota sampling
The researcher decides how many left handed people he wants in his sample eg. 50% and then goes and finds that amount. This is different from stratified sampling because 50% of people are not left handed therefore the sample is not representative of the target population. Nevertheless, it may be necessary to have an unrepresentative sample if you are testing a particular, perhaps minority trait.
Opportunity Sample
Those who are available. Eg. you may go to Asda on Wed morning and hand out food shopping surveys to all those you find.
This may be biased as no working people or children would be at Asda, people who shop at Waitrose would not be at Asda… etc.
Easy, quick, finds people who would be relevant for the for the study, eg, you could find a load of schizophrenics at schizophrenia support group, they may not be representative of all schizophrenics but this may not be wildly important
Volunteer Sample
Can acquire a large sample easily (especially if advertising in a national newspaper)
will inevitably be biased (only motivated, un-busy and interested participants)
Random Sampling
Members of the target population are allocated a number and then numbers are randomly generated in order to select participants.
This often results in more representative samples as everyone has an equal chance of being picked, however this is not guaranteed and people may refuse to take part
Snowball sampling
If it is difficult to find people with a certain trait then snowball sampling could be used. This is where one participant can introduce another few potential participants to the study, because they may know them and you do not. This allows you to conduct research on groups of people who are difficult to identify (eg. get interviews with members of the persecuted church) although inevitably leads to a biased sample as only a select few who know others will be contacted.
What ethical issues need to be considered in research?
informed consent (children and vulnerable adults need special consideration, pressure or monetary incentives should be avoided)
right to withdraw (must be made clear, can be retrospective if poss)
protection from harm
deception (deliberately misleading people should be avoided if poss)
anonymity
confidentiality (their information should not be identifiable as theirs)
The ethics of using animals in research
How to overcome: a failure to protect ppts from harm
right to withdraw
informed consent
debrief and continuing support if necessary
How to deal with: lack of informed consent in research
Presumptive consent (ask others, would you do this? do you think x will mind?)
Right to withhold data (retrospective withdrawal from the study)
debrief
Ways to deal with: lack of right to withdraw
Informed consent
right to withhold data
Ways to deal with a lack of confidentiality
informed consent
right to withdraw
right to withhold data
Animal research, pluses and minuses
Can conduct research which is highly necessary which we cannot do on humans, can minimise discomfort through painkillers, using humane techniques, small samples
Animals may suffer harm, may not be justified due to extrapolation issues anyway, is favouring humans ‘speciesism’?
Significance level
The level of probability (p) at which it has been agreed that the null hypothesis should be rejected. Often the significance level is:
P
Type 1 error
We incorrectly accept the alternative hypothesis when we should have accepted the null
because we used a significance level that was too lenient.
Type 2 error
We incorrectly accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis because we were
too stringent and used a significance level of p
One tailed test
For a directional hypothesis
Two tailed Test
for a non-directional hypothesis
Null hypothesis
an assumption that, within the target population, there is:
no relationship/difference/ association with respect to the variables being studied.
The null suggests the results are not significant, they are due to chance
alternative hypothesis
A testable statement about the relationship between two variables. In an alternative hypothesis there will always be a relationship or difference or association between the variables
This is called an experimental hypothesis if it is an experiment
The alternative hypothesis states that the results are significant and are not due to chance
directional hypothesis
States the nature of the effect of the IV on the DV (
the direction of the relationship (positive, as x increases y will increase)
the direction of difference (higher than, more, less than)
non-directional hypothesis
Predicts that there will be an effect or difference or relationship but does not state the direction this will take
‘there will be a difference between…’
‘there is a relationship between…’
What information do you need to find whether something is significant using an inferential test
(N) - number of ppts in the study, This is also sometimes called degree of freedom or (df)
Is this a one tailed or two tailed test
What significance level are you using (usually this is p
