Research Methods 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is an observation?
A
Observations are when a researcher can actually see and monitor the behavior of the participants, where the psychologist gets to record behavior just by sitting back and taking notes.
2
Q
what is a covert observation? And how can this be ethical?
A
A covert observation is when participants are unaware that their behavior is being recorded. For this to be an ethical study, the behavior must be taking place in a public setting, where people can expect to be recorded.
3
Q
What are the types of observations?
A
- covert
- overt
- naturalistic
- controlled
- participant
- non participant
4
Q
what is an overt observation?
A
An overt observation is when participants are told in advance that their behavior will be watched and recorded, so that they can get consent.
5
Q
What is a naturalistic observation?
A
A naturalistic observation is when behavior is recorded in the place where it would normally occur and nothing is changed in the environment. The IV can change at any time.
6
Q
what is a controlled observation
A
A controlled experiment happens when a researcher wants to control aspects of the situation.
7
Q
what is a participant observation?
A
A participant observation is when the researcher becomes a part of the group that they are observing
8
Q
what is a non-participant observation?
A
A participant observation is when the researcher decides to be separate from the people who they are studying
9
Q
What issues can happen during an observation and what must be ensured during an observation?
A
- The results might be biased and the result might fit the aims of the experiment instead of what is true
- Correct categories might not be established
- Results should do a pilot before conducting the actual observation
- Reactions might be misinterpreted
- Observations must be relevant
10
Q
what is a category?
A
Categories of behaviour are observable behavior which researchers will be looking out for during the observation, that can also be counted into units
11
Q
what is interobserver reliability?
A
Interobserver reliability is to make sure that an observers record is the same as another observer to ensure that the data is accurate. It is an agreement between 2 or more observers involved in the observation of behavior.
12
Q
Why is observer bias a problem?
A
Researchers can interpret the results incorrectly and it affects the reliability and reliability of the data. The researcher might overlook important details or only record data that fits the aims of their experiment.
13
Q
what are the steps to check interobserver reliability?
A
- The researcher creates categories of behavior (behavior checklist)
- All observers should watch the same sequence of behaviour
- Observers should compare the data they have recorded and see if there are any differences.
- If the observations made are not very similar, the categories of behaviour need to be altered or rewritten altogether. It is possible that the categories were not easy to identify
- if there is a large difference between the results then the observations need to be repeated
14
Q
What are the strengths of observation studies then interviews/questionnaires?
A
- They provide a more accurate report of participant’s behavior than an interview or questionnaire because the participants might not self-report their behaviors truthfully or they might not know how they would react, which is why it is more valid to actually see what they would do in that situation.
- it can be more ethical/practical to carry out observations because covert investigations allows us to research and investigate either situations or topics that could be dangerous
- They look at real-life behavior since participants don’t know that they are being studied so they behave naturally in that situation. This means that the data collected has more validity
15
Q
What are some weaknesses of observations?
A
- Ethical issues can arise because if a covert observation is being carried out, then the participant’s right to withhold information from the researcher is invaded, as well as their privacy. Participants might not consent to being a part of the observation, so their right to withdraw during the experiment is also invaded.
- The observers might have expectations about how they want the experiment to carry out and this can influence their results, this is called observer bias.
16
Q
how can a researcher solve observer bias?
A
If there are 2 or more psychologists that can compare and agree upon the observations upon seeing the same categories or behavior checklist, so that the observations are reliable and valid as it ensures that one researcher’s findings are the same as another’s, where observer bias will be solved.
17
Q
what is interobserver reliability?
A
Interobserver reliability is what is established when an observer solves observer bias by comparing their results with other psychologists by having the same behavior checklist, as well as the same results, which makes sure that the results collected by one observer was the same as another’s results.
18
Q
Name 3 categories for observing aggression
A
- hitting
- screaming
- frowning
19
Q
What is a case study?
A
A case study is an in-depth investigation about an individual or a group, and can be used in an every-day situation or for an unusual event or person.
20
Q
what data is mostly produced from case studies and why?
A
Qualitative data is produced from case studies because most times, people express their thoughts and feelings through words. However, it is possible to collect quantitative data by using questionnaires or tests.
21
Q
What different types of research methods in psychology can be used in a case study?
A
Interviews can be used to collect the thoughts and feelings of the participant, or their family or friends that might’ve been affected by the unusual event or person. Questionnaires and tests can also be used, which collects quantitative data. Many different research methods can be used in a case study
22
Q
What are some features of a case study that is unusual?
A
Case studies can sometimes be conducted over a short period of time but they tend to be longitudinal
23
Q
what does longitudinal mean?
A
Longitudinal means that in a case study, data and case studies can be conducted over a long period of time, sometimes many years. This is done to figure out the participant’s development and change over time.
24
Q
what are some advantages of case studies?
A
- They provide in-depth, detailed insights on the participant/s which would not be able to be found using other research methods. This makes the results have high validity
- It can be conducted when it is otherwise unethical or unpractical to carry out usually, since the situation, event or person is unusual
- Researchers will have less expectations and are more open-minded. This increases the validity because the researcher will gain unusual insights and results since the don’t have a specific hypothesis or aim.
- It can enhance understandings about psychology and can provide valuable information about unusual groups or individuals, that can sometimes be applied to the wider population
25
what are some disadvantages of case studies?
- It is hard to generalise the findings because the case study is applied to an unusual individual or group, meaning that it is unrepresentative to the wider population
- lots of information can be gathered, that can sometimes be irrelevant or useless
- the findings are subjective since the researcher is independent and they might make errors in the analyzing and their opinions can alter the results, making the findings less valid
26
Identify one ethical issue that can arise in a case study?
In a case study, an ethical issue that might arise in a case study is informed consent. Participants should be made aware about the aims of the experiment, their role, and should be made aware that they have the right to withdraw at any point during the experiment, and be able to provide their full consent before the experiment.
27
What is a sample and where are they drawn from?
A sample is the participants that will take part in the research. They are drawn from a larger group called the **target population**.
28
What is the target population?
the target population is the group of people that the researcher is interested in and want to learn/draw conclusions about them.
28
What does the sample need to be?
The sample needs to be **representative** of the target population so that generalisations can be made from the results of the study and can be applied to the rest of the population and possibly the wider population
29
What does representative mean?
Representative means that the sample should represent the entire target population and should have the **same characteristics and abilities** that the wider population also has
29
What are the 4 types of sampling?
- stratified sampling
- random sampling
- opportunity sampling
- systematic sampling
29
What does stratified sampling mean?
Stratified sampling means that the sample is selected based on different sub-groups (strata) and characteristics in the target population in proportion to the whole figure. This means that the amount of participants chosen in the sample should be in ratio to the whole target population.
30
what are some advantages of stratified sampling?
- This type of sampling is the most representative of them all because the researcher identifies important sub-groups and ensures that the amount of participants in that sub-group are in proportion with the target population
- This makes the results easy to generalise because it is more representative
- Selection is less biased since it is based on the specific subgroups and is not chosen specifically by the researcher
31
what are some disadvantages of stratified sampling?
- the process of dividing participants based on their sub-groups and making the amount in proportion can be very time-consuming
- there can be bias in the selection, since the researcher might chose sub-groups based on their aims
- the researcher would need to have knowledge on the sub-groups and categories, which they might not have
32
what is random sampling?
In random sampling, everybody has an equal chance of being selected
33
how would you use stratified sampling?
- identify number of target population
- select sub-groups or categories
- find out which participants in the population belong to the categories chosen
- put that amount of participants into ratio e.g. 300:200:500
- select amount of people in sample
- randomly select people who belong to each subgroup and is in ratio to the amount e.g. 3:2:5
34
how do you do random sampling?
- have a list of the target population's name or have a number for each person
- randomly select the sample by using a random number generator or by using a hat to draw names
35
what are the advantages of random sampling?
- there is no bias because every person has an equal chance of getting selected
- makes it more likely to be a representative sample
36
what are the disadvantages of random sampling?
- it is more time consuming and impractical to carry out then the other sampling types. This is because you need to obtain a list of all the members of your target population and then randomly select them.
- It may be non-representative as one gender could be selected randomly, for example, which would not be a true representation of the target population.
37
what is systematic sampling?
A sample is made using a numerical formula from a list of the target population
38
how do you do systematic sampling?
- the researcher would calculate total amount of people in target population
- find out what nth they would need e.g 10th, 5th, 100th person on the list
- they would use the nth person on the list until the sample size is achieved
39
what are the advantages of systematic sampling?
- it is an unbiased selection
- more likely to be representative to the target population, meaning better generalisations can be made
- prevents researcher bias since the researcher has no control on who is selected
40
what are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?
- can still be biased if the sample consists on one particular group of people, reducing the generalisations that can be made about the population
41
what is opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling is when a researcher selects a sample who happen to be there at the same time and is willing and available.
42
how do you do opportunity sampling?
- Go to a place that would contain the target population
- ask people if they want to take part and if they are willing and available, then the sample has been selected
43
what are some advantages of opportunity sampling?
- it is relatively easy to select the participants since the sample would just be found in one place and this is convenient for the researcher
- This is a time-efficient way of obtaining a sample.
44
what are some disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
- the sample is likely to be unrepresentative of the entire population, especially if the sample is found at a specific place. This means that generalisations about the target population can only be found within the target population of that setting.
- it is a self-selected sample since participants have the choice to decline or accept into the study. This means that the sample might have participants that share the same characteristics.
45
What do the sampling methods aim to do?
They aim to create generalisations about an entire population that the researcher wants to learn about, by selecting a group of people that share characteristics and the abilities that the target population has. By using a sample of an entire population, this can help psychologists to draw conclusions about their target population
46
what is a variable? And what are the 3 variables?
Variables are the factors in a study or experiment that can vary or change the results. The 3 variables are the independent variable, dependent variable, extraneous variable
47
what is the independent variable?
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter
48
what is the dependent variable?
The dependent variable is the variable in an investigation that will be measured
48
what is an extraneous variable?
Extraneous variables are factors outside the experiment that affect the results of the study. They are any variable other than the IV which causes a change in the DV
49
what is an operationalised variable?
Operationalising a variable means making it clear, precise and measurable
50
what is a hypothesis?
A Precise, predictable statement of the relationship between the variables being investigated made by the experimenter
51
what is a null hypothesis?
Where the hypothesis predicts that there will be no relationship between the variables
52
what is an alternative hypothesis?
A hypothesis that can either be directional or non-directional
53
what is a directional hypothesis
A directional hypothesis is a hypothesis that declares which direction the relationship between two variables will have or the effect of the IV on the DV. E.g. PPs in the noise condition will perform **significantly better** than the PPs in the silence condition on a memory test
54
what is a non directional hypothesis?
A non-directional hypothesis is a hypothesis that recognizes that a change will be made in the experiment between the relationship of both variables but it doesn't indicate the direction it will go in. E.g. There will be a **significant difference** between the scores of PPs in the noise group on a memory test and PPs in the silence group
55
what is an aim?
An overview or general statement of what the researcher wants to achieve in the experiment
56
Identify the IV and DV and operationalise them in the hypothesis stated below:
There will be a difference between the number of boys and the number of girls playing football at lunch time
IV: gender: girls vs boys
DV: no. of participants playing football at lunch
57
Identify the IV and DV and operationalise them in the hypothesis stated below:
There will be a difference between the number of words recalled by participants who have learned them whilst listening to music through their AirPods and participants who have learned the same words in silence
IV: sounds heard: music vs silence
DV: number of words accurately recalled by participants
58
Operationalise this hypothesis and say research method that can be used:
Social media use will negatively effect mental health
IV: Social media usage - 2hrs per day vs 30 mins per day
DV: number of symptoms of poor mental health (questionnaire)
59
Operationalise this hypothesis (identify IV + DV) and say research method that can be used:
Doing exercise will reduce depression
IV: Frequency of exercise per week - 3 times a week vs 0 times a week
DV: no. of participants that have shown symptoms of depression (observation)
60
What tense are hypotheses written in and why?
Hypotheses are written in the present tense because they haven't been proven or confirmed yet, since hypotheses are written before the actual experiment is carried out.
61
What is a laboratory experiment?
A laboratory experiment is a type of experiment where the researcher can exert a high amount of control over what they see, hear or about any of the variables that the researcher wants to control. A laboratory experiment would happen in a controlled environment e.g. a lab or classroom
62
what are some strengths of laboratory experiments?
- the researcher can control extraneous variables that could possibly change the DV by making sure that any changes in the DV are from the IV and not any other variables
- Lab experiments use standardised procedures, such as the equipment used and this makes it easier to replicate since it is more reliable, meaning that the results would be the same if repeated
63
what are some weaknesses of laboratory experiments?
- the experiment isn't based or set in real life, meaning that the researcher would be unable to generalise the results. This means that the results lack ecological validity.
- participants would know that they are being studied, so they might alter their behavior to please the experimenter. This is called demand characteristics and this reduces the reliability of the experiment
64
what is ecological validity?
Ecological validity is the ability to generalise the findings to a real life situation
65
what are demand characteristics?
demand characteristics is when a participant has tried to guess the aims of the study and has altered their behavior to please the experimenter. This mainly happens in experimental research methods, like lab experiments
66
what is the social desirability bias?
the social desirability bias is when a participant changes their behavior in order to please or seem better in front of other people e.g. other interviewees. This mainly happens in quantitative or qualitative research methods, like questionnaires
67
what is a field experiment?
A field experiment is an experiment that is held in a real-life setting, where there is an IV that is manipulated by the researcher that affects the DV
68
what are some strengths of field experiments?
- they are often more realistic than laboratory experiments because they are conducted in a natural environment, that would be made to replicate real-life situations. This means that the participant's behavior is less likely to be altered and they will have a greater validity
- Field experiments can follow standardized procedures. This helps for some extraneous variables to be controlled, increasing the reliability and validity of the experiment.
69
what are some weaknesses of field experiments?
- the researcher may lose control of extraneous variables in the real-life setting. This means that cause and effect can be harder to establish, since we don't know which variable caused what.
- In some field experiments, participants are unaware that they are being tested. This can bring up ethical concerns since participants would've not given informed consent.
70
what is a natural experiment?
A natural experiment is an experiment that is conducted in a real life setting with a **naturally occurring IV**. The change in the IV is not being brought by the experimenter, but is happening anyway, meaning that the researcher just has to record the effect on the DV.
71
what are the advantages of a natural experiment
- natural experiments usually have a high validity because they involve real-life changes and would normally occur in a real-life setting
- Natural experiments allow researchers to investigate topics/issues that would, otherwise be unethical to manipulate
72
what are some examples of IVs in a natural experiment?
- Age: It can't be changed by an experimenter
- Circumstances: high amount of training vs no training, experimenter is taking advantage of something that has variety anyways
- IQ: experimenter can't change IQ since there would be varied IQs in the study
- Gender: experimenter can't change gender and is taking advantage of varied genders
73
what are some disadvantages of natural experiments?
- The situation that the researcher is focused on might be very rare and unlikely to happen very often. This means that It won't be able to be replicated to ensure reliability
- Because the IV is naturally occurring, the participants might be unique and might not represent the rest of the population
74
What is the structure for evaluations?
PBT
P - point (advantage/disadvantage)
B - because (show understanding using examples)
T - therefore (increased/decreased reliability, validity or generalisations)
75
what is the purpose of experiments?
The purpose of conducting experiments is to prove or deny a hypothesis and determine the relationship between two variables.
76
What is an experimental design?
An experimental design refers to how the researcher allocates (put participants in groups) the participants to the various conditions of the study
77
What is an independent groups design?
An independent groups design is when there are separate groups of people for each level (condition) of the IV in the experiment. There are often 2 levels of each experiment, where one group goes to the **experimental condition** of the IV and the other group goes to the **control condition** of the IV, which acts as a baseline to show the effects of the IV
78
what are the advantages of using an independent groups design?
- No order effects when you repeat all of the conditions within the experiments and any extraneous variables such as boredom and fatigue can be eliminated or controlled by the researcher
- Participants are less likely to succumb to demand characteristics as they take part in only one condition
79
What are the disadvantages of using an independent groups design?
- Participant variables
- More participants are needed because different groups are needed for each condition
80
what are participant variables?
the participants personal abilities and skills that are not measured can affect the validity of the results
81
what are a repeated groups design?
A repeated measures design, the participants receive all levels of the IV. So the participants would participate in both the experimental condition and control. The 2 sets of results for each participant would then be compared.
82
What are the advantages of a repeated groups design?
- the problem of participant variables is removed since the researcher compares the participants results to themselves rather than other people
- fewer participants are needed because they all have to do the same conditions
83
what are the disadvantages of a repeated groups design
- order effects are the extraneous variables that can arise in participants if they repeat an experiment, for example, an order effect can be boredom or practice
84
how do researchers overcome order effects?
Researchers overcome order effects by using **counterbalancing**, which means that the group of participants get split into groups, where one group do both conditions in one order, and the other group do both conditions in another order. This allows the results to be evened out and reduces order effects.
85
How do we remember counter balancing?
we use ABBA, where it shows that group 1 of a repeated measures experiment would do condition A and B, while group 2 would do condition B and A, which controls order effects.
86
what is a matched pairs design?
Based on a participant's key participant variables that are important to the study, they are allocated to a pair who has similar abilities to them. One of each pair will then be allocated to a different group of the experiment, where an independent groups design then happens.
87
what are some advantages of matched pairs design?
- Participants are only tested once, so no order effects
- reduces participant variables since the groups that are allocated are according to mixed abilities and skills.
88
what are some disadvantages of matched pairs designs?
- matching participants is time consuming and is never exact, likely that only one or two key variables will be matched so some participant variables remain.
89
what are participant variables?
Participant variables are when the participant's personal abilities and skills that are not measured in the study can affect the validity of the results
90
what does allocation to conditions mean?
It is how the researcher puts the participants into their groups, the allocation to conditions is when the researcher overcomes participant variables in an unbiased way.
91
how does the researcher allocate participants in order to deal with participant variables? Explain random allocation
Random allocation methods like flipping a coin or choosing participants who arrive first can be done in order to make sure that the researcher doesn't influence who goes into each group. This means that participant variables get evened out.
