Research Methods Flashcards
(for psychology test)
What are laboratory experiments?
Independent variable is manipulated by researcher. Takes place in a controlled setting.
What are field experiments?
Independent variable is manipulated by researcher. Takes place in a real-life setting.
What is the reliability of laboratory experiments?
Highly controlled/standardised. Can be replicated and tested for reliability.
What is the reliability of field experiments?
Less control, lack of standardisation. Harder to replicate and test for reliability.
What is the validity of laboratory experiments?
Can establish cause and effect due to high level of control. Demand characteristics and artificial setting can make behaviour unnatural.
What is the validity of field experiments?
Establishing cause and effect more difficult due to lower level of control. Usually no demand characteristics; real-world setting makes behaviour more natural.
What are the ethical considerations in laboratory experiments?
Sometimes use deception, easier to gain consent and explain the right to withdraw. Debriefing is possible.
What are the ethical considerations in field experiments?
Sometimes use deception, often lack informed consent and right to withdraw. Debriefing not always possible.
What is independent measures experimental design?
Different participants in each condition of the independent variable.
What are the strengths of independent measures design?
Less likely to be affected by demand characteristics than repeated measures designs. No order effects.
What are the weaknesses of independent measures design?
Participant variables can reduce validity.
What is a solution to the problems of independent measures design?
Random allocation to overcome participant variables, therefore increasing validity.
What is repeated measures experimental design?
Same participants in all conditions of the independent variable.
What are the strengths of repeated measures design?
No participant variables. Only needs half as many participants as they all participate twice.
What are the weaknesses of repeated measures design?
More likely to be affected by demand characteristics than independent measures design. Order effects can reduce validity.
What is a solution to the problems of repeated measures design?
Counterbalancing to overcome order effects, therefore increasing validity.
What is matched pairs experimental design?
Different participants in each condition of the independent variable, matched on important key characteristics.
What are the strengths of matched pairs design?
No order effects or participant variables. Less likely to be affected by demand characteristics than repeated measures design.
What are the weaknesses of matched pairs design?
Time-consuming and difficult to set up, potentially resulting in smaller samples and decreased ability to generalise.
What is a solution to the problems of matched pairs design?
If possible, recruit a large sample in order to create the matched pairs, one of which will be allocated to each group.
What are self-reports in research?
Participants answer written questions on paper or online, which can include both open and closed questions.
What are the strengths of self-reports: questionnaires?
Researchers can gather large amounts of data relatively quickly.
What are the weaknesses of self-reports: questionnaires?
Participants may be less willing to elaborate on their answers when writing.
What are self-reports: interviews?
Researchers question participants face-to-face or over the telephone and can ask both open and closed questions. May be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
What are the strengths of self-reports: interviews?
Rich, qualitative data can be gathered, giving a good insight into how people are thinking and feeling.
What are the weaknesses of self-reports: interviews?
Participants may be more likely to give socially desirable answers, due to speaking directly with the researcher.
What are case studies?
In-depth investigations into individuals or small groups of people. Data gathered using a variety of data collection methods and triangulated.
What are the strengths of case studies?
Can give a unique insight into an individual who may have experienced unusual or difficult circumstances.
What are the weaknesses of case studies?
Findings cannot be generalised because one person or a small group of people is unlikely to be representative.
What are observations in research?
Researchers watch people’s behaviour and record it. Can be overt/covert, participant/non-participant, structured/unstructured, naturalistic/controlled.
What are the strengths of observations?
May be high in validity if an observation is naturalistic and covert, as behaviour should be natural.
What are the weaknesses of observations?
May be low in validity as interpretation of behaviour observed can be subjective.
What are correlations in research?
Researchers look for a relationship between two co-variables.
What are the strengths of correlations?
Allow researchers to investigate areas where it would be unethical or impractical to manipulate variables.
What are the weaknesses of correlations?
It is not possible to determine causation, only that two variables are related.
What are longitudinal studies?
Researchers follow the same group of individuals over a period of time. This could be from several months to many years.
What are the strengths of longitudinal studies?
Allows researchers to see how people change and develop in their thinking or behaviour over time.
What are the weaknesses of longitudinal studies?
If the timescale is long, participants may drop out, affecting the validity of the data.
What is the aim in research?
The statement of why the researcher is doing the study and what they hope to achieve.
What are hypotheses in research?
The predictions that the researcher makes about what they will find.
What are independent variables?
The ones that the researcher manipulates to see what effect it has on the dependent variable.
What are dependent variables?
What the researcher is measuring.
What are controlling variables?
Controls ensure that any changes to the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
What are uncontrolled variables?
Factors which may affect the study’s validity.
What are participant variables?
Individual characteristics that affect how a person behaves in a study and can affect the validity of an experiment if they vary systematically with the independent variable.
What are situational variables?
Features of the environment that affect how a person behaves in a study and can affect the validity of an experiment if they vary systematically with the independent variable.
What is a standardised procedure?
The procedure is consistent/the same for every participant so the study can be replicated and tested for reliability.
What is qualitative data?
Gathers people’s thoughts and opinions. Can provide rich, in-depth data, but analysis may be subjective and open to researcher bias.
What is quantitative data?
Numerical data. More objective to analyse and easily compared.
What is opportunity sampling?
People nearby are asked to take part by the researcher. Quick and easy to obtain, but participants may have similar characteristics.
What is volunteer (self-selecting) sampling?
People respond to advertisements. Participants are often highly motivated, but sample may be biased.
What is random sampling?
Everyone within the target population has an equal chance of taking part in the research. Can be difficult and time-consuming to obtain the sample.
What are ethical guidelines in research?
Research should follow ethical guidelines including: minimising harm, valid consent, right to withdraw, lack of deception, privacy and maintaining confidentiality.
What are ethical guidelines when working with animals?
Minimise harm, replacement, species, numbers, procedures: pain, suffering and distress, housing, reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli.
What is validity in research?
The extent to which the researcher is measuring what they think they are measuring.
What is ecological validity?
The extent to which the participants’ behaviour reflects how they would behave in their everyday life.
What are demand characteristics?
Features of the environment which give away the aim of the study.
What is generalisability?
The extent to which a study’s findings can be meaningfully applied to the target population.
What is temporal validity?
The extent to which findings can be applied to other time periods.
What is reliability in research?
Whether the findings of a study are consistent due to standardised procedures and control variables.
What is inter-rater reliability?
The extent to which two researchers agree in their scoring of a questionnaire or test.
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which two researchers agree in their recording of behaviours in an observation.
What is test-retest reliability?
Participants repeat a test or questionnaire after a time period to see if they gain similar scores.
What is replicability in research?
Whether a study can be repeated in exactly the same way again through standardised instructions and procedures.
What are measures of central tendency?
A single value that describes the whole of a data set.
What is the mean?
Calculated by adding all of the scores together and dividing by the number of scores.
What is the mode?
The most frequently occurring score.
What is the median?
The ‘middle’ value when a list of numbers (scores) is put in order from smallest to greatest.
What are measures of spread?
Indicate how data is distributed around the mean.
What is the range?
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set.
What is standard deviation?
Tells us how data is spread around the mean.
What is a bar chart?
Used to show categorical data. Bars do not touch.
What is a histogram?
Used to show continuous data. Bars touch.
What is a scatter graph?
Used to show a relationship between co-variables.
What are randomised control trials?
Participants are randomly assigned to an experimental or control (placebo) condition.
What is a strength of randomised control trials?
The double-blind design reduces experimenter bias as well as reducing demand characteristics.
What is a weakness of randomised control trials?
The placebo group may be delayed in receiving an effective intervention.
What are postal questionnaires?
Questionnaires that are posted out to the target population.
What is a strength of postal questionnaires?
Location not an issue; can be posted anywhere in the world.
What is a weakness of postal questionnaires?
Return rate is quite low due to the effort of posting questionnaires back.
What are rating scales in questionnaires?
‘Forces’ the participant to make a response from a fixed number of options, which may be on a scale.
What is a strength of rating scales?
Produce quantitative data, allowing for objective comparisons to be made between people.
What is a weakness of rating scales?
The fixed responses may not be valid for some participants.
What are psychometric tests?
These measure the individual differences between people relating to personality, aptitude, knowledge or skills.
What is a strength of psychometric tests?
Objective as the tests produce numerical data.
What is a weakness of psychometric tests?
If a participant feels under stress, it may affect how they respond; data may be neither valid nor reliable.
