Research Methods Flashcards
whats an independent variable?
a variable which the experimenter an minipulate or change- allow to compare the results- cuase and effect relationship.
What is a dependent variable?
experimernters measure after manipulating or changing theIV
What is an extranious varible?
any potential variable other than the IV that could cause the changes found in the DV
What does it mean to opperationalise?
-to make it measurable
-makes more objective
what is a participant variable?
things about the ppts that could effect the DV, mood/ age could affect results and so to control you would need a large sample so it is representative
what is a resercher/ experimenter variable?
things about the researcher that could potentially affect the results to control for this methods such as random allocation could reduce the impact of researcher bias
what is situational varibale?
things about the enviroment that could possibly affect the measurement of the DV to control for these standardisation approach .
What is an alternate hypothesis?
pradicts there will be a difference or relationship between two or more varibles
what is a one tailed hypothesis?
predicts the direction of the difference “men will drive faster then women”
what is a two-tailed hypothsis?
predicts the difference but not the direction “there will be a difference in male and females driving speeds”
what is a null hypothesis?
there will be no significant difference between correlation
What is a Laboratory Experiment?.
The researcher deliberately manipulates an IV while maintaining strict control over the environment through standardised procedures. Has high control over extraneous variables.
What are the strength of a Laboratory Experiment?
-More objective and so allows for replication
-High control so causality can be established
What are the weaknesses of Laboratory Experiment?
-Not possible to control for every extraneous variable, so could influence DV
-low in ecological validity as ppts are not behaving naturally and so could show demand characteristics
What is a Feild Experiment?
The researcher deliberately manipulates the IV but does so in the participants natural setting.
What is a strength of a Field Experiment?
-results are more likely to be more ecologically valid as it occurs in ppts natural environment and so they are less likely to show demand characteristics
What is a weakness of Field Experiments?
-Considered unethical as you would be observing participants without their concent
-difficult to control over extraneous variables and so some could confound the results of the DV
-difficult to replicate
What is a Quasi Experiment?
The IV are naturally occurring.
What is a strength of a Quasi Experiment?
-more likely to be ecologically valid as they are investigating a natural change on the DV, so there is less influence from potential researcher bias.
- in some experiments ppts are unaware that they are being observed to less likely to show demand characteristics
What is a weakness of Quasi Experiments?
-results from research may become socially sensitive and have a negative affect on those groups studied
- some people may not be able to fully give informed consent
-difficult to infer causality and there is little or no control over EV
what is a repeated measures design?
ppts take part in all conditions of the IV
What ids a strength of repeated measures design?
-very practical as less ppts are needed
-controls for participant varibles as they are compared to themself
-counterballancig and deception could be used to minimise the weaknesses
what is a weakness of repeated measures design?
-order affect and demand characteristics are more likely
-ppts may become bored or fatigue
what is independent meausres design?
ppts only take part in one condition of IV and their results are compared to another ppts from another condition
strenghts of independent measures design?
-aviods order effect and minimised demand characteristics
weakness of independent measures design?
-more time consuming
-participant variables may affect measurement of DV
what is mathched pairs design?
ppts only take part in one condition of IV and their results are compared to another ppts results who are matched on characteristics
strengths of mathched pairs design?
-avoids order affect
-minimises demand characreristics
weaknesses of matched pairs?
-time consuming
-impossible to full match ppts
what is Ceiling Effect?
The point at which a participant cannot achieve a higher score (eg. on a test) though they have the capability to do so
what is a non-participant observation?
involve a researcher observing a group of participants from a distance.
what is an advantage of non-participant observations?
less likely to show demand characteristics as the participants are unaware that they are being watched
What is a participant observation?
the researcher becomes part of the group they are observing by deceiving the participants and pretending to be part of their group.
what is an advantage of participant observations?
usually covers and so the participants are unaware that they are being watched so behavior will not be changed and therefore less likely to show demand characteristics, so results will be high in ecological validity.
What is an ethical issue about participant observations?
participants are deceived about the researchers real identity and is also invading their privacy. They are also time consuming and difficult to achieve as participant my become suspicious and the researcher may lose objectivity and subjective if they develop a relationship and empathy with the people they are observing
what is an advantage of observations?
researchers get to see how participants actually behave rather than how they say they behave, so results are more likely to be ecologically valid. They are also less likely to so demand characteristics.
What is a disadvantage of observations?
observing participants in there natur environment means there is little to no control over extraneous variables therefore causality is not realy possible to infer. They are also highly difficult to replicate to check the reliability of the results. There may also be observer bias over interpretations of participants behaviour and therefore could be subjective and so invalid.
what is a naturalistic observation.
one which takes place in the participants natural environment where nothing has been manipulated by the researcher.
what is a controlled observation?
one which takes place in a laboratory, controlled room, where certain variables can be manipulated such as who enters the room,lighting and which apparatus are used.
what is an advantage of naturalistic observations?
The observation occurs in the participants natural environment so it it less likely that they will show demand characteristics
What is a disadvantage of naturalistic observations?
Researchers have little to no control over extraneous variables so they cannot infer causality
what is an advantage of controlled observations?
high levels of control
what is a weakness of controlled observations?
high levels of controls reduces ecological validity therefore results are less likely to be valid.
What is an advantage of structured observations?
data collected is easier to analyse and therefore compare participants behaviour due to quantitative data. Researcher bias is also less likely due to its objective nature.
What are structured observations?
observers observe and record participants behaviours by checking off or coding behaviours seen on a predetermined list, known on a coding scheme
what is a disadvantage of structure observations?
results does not allow the reasons for behaviour therefore observer bias is more likely during observations why a participant is behaving in a certain way, invalidating the results.
what is a unstructured observation?
observers observe and record participants behaviours by writing it all down during the whole observation period, generally gathering qualitative data as it is indepth and descriptive.
what is an advantage of unstructured observations?
it is easier to gain insight and find reasons for the behaviour observed that are perhaps more valid due to the qualitative.
what is a disadvantage of unstructured observations.
This data is difficult to analyse and compare with other participants, as researchdr bias when interpretating behavior could occur invalidating results.
what is time sampling?
observers pick a time interval such as every 15 seconds, and then only record the behaviours which occur at that time interval across the whole observation period.
why is time sampling affective?
observers only have to pay attention to behaviours occurring during that time interval, so they are less likely to miss behaviours and resulta are more likely to be representative and valid.
what is a disadvantage of time sampling?
If any behaviour happens outside of the time interval it cannot be recorded and so the results are less likely to be representative of all behaviours and so are less likely to be valid in comparison to recording the whole observation.
what is event sampling?
observers create a coding scheme of behaviours they expect to see and each behaviour, an event, which is noted down as a tally.
why is event sampling affective?
observers only have to pat attention to the event list and so it is quick and efficient doing so, more likely to be valid and less likely to miss behaviours.
what is a disadvantage of event sampling?
behaviours could occur outside of the coding scheme and so cannot be recorded and results may not be representative of all behaviours that could and so are not valid.
define observer bias
observer bias is when observers are influenced by what they expect to see and therefore subjectively record the behaviour of the participants
define inter rate reliability
the extent to which rating of two or more observers are in agreement in their measurements when compared
Exain what is meant by a covert observation?
A covert observation means that participants are being observed without knowing that they are being , so participants are unaware of the observation.
Why are correlations used?
They are used to see if there is a relationship between two co-variables
What data do correlations gather?
Quantitative data- easy analysis and comparison to other findings, considered objective so no researcher bias
How can correlations be represented and why?
Scatter graphs make it easier to analyse if there is a relationship between the two co-variables
What does a positive correlation suggest?
As one co-variable increases the other co-variable also increases
What does a negative correlation suggest?
As one co-variable increases the other co-variable decreases
although correlation may indicate a relationship between co-variables it does not look for differences and therefore it is not possible to establish causality
May also be affected by a 3rd variable problem which affects the other co-variables
What are strong positive correlations?
0.7, 0 8, 0.9, and 1
What are strong negative correlations?
-0.7, -0.8, -0.9, and -1
What is a moderate positive correlation?
0.4, 0.5, and 0.6
What is a moderate negative correlation?
-0.4, -0.5, and -0.6
What is a weak positive correlation?
0.1, 0.2, and 0.3
what is a weak negative correlation?
-0.1, -0.2, and -0.3
What is no correlation?
0
Good starting point for preliminary research
able to investigate relationships that are unethical
what is an open-question?
allow participants to provide as much or little detail as they wish in response to a question.
strength of open questions.
More likely to find out the reasons for behaviour and so in this way are more valid. participants are also less likely to become frustrated when answering questions. They are a more realistic type of question.
weakness of open questions?
Difficult to analyse as qualitative data takes alot of subjective interpretation and so researcher bias may affect the validity of results
what is a closed question?
allows participants to select from options that are pre-determined and so they produce quantitative data.
strength of closed questions?
answers are easier to analyse and compare between participants as data collected is objective so researcher bias is less likely to affect the validity of results .
weakness of closed questions?
data has a narrow range as it lacks the quality of open ended data as participants are restricted to a number of pre-determined options, participants may be forced into an option.
what is a questionnaire?
set of questions about a topic under investigation.
strength of questionnaire?
effective and convenient at collecting large amounts of data relatively quickly, usually produce quantitative data so results are easier to analyse and compare between participants as it is objective and so less likely to be affected by researcher bias.
weakness of questionnaire?
participants may give socialy desirable answers and so data is not representative of what they actually think and so is invalid
What is nominal data?
Regards categories and frequencies of occurrence
What is ordinal data?
data which involves the use of a scale (order or ranking)
What is interval data?
data which is s specific measurement or score
what is a descriptive statistic?
describes the data collected
What are examples of central tendency?
mean, median, mode
Define central tendency?
-a way of summarising data
-should be representative of the data set
how to calculate the mean?
add all the scores then divide the sum by how many scores there were.
what is a disadvantage of using the mean?
data can be skweed if there is an outlier
what is an advantage of using the mean?
can be more representative of data
How to calculate the median?
place all values in numerical order and find the midpoint.
what is an advantage of using the median?
It is not distorted my extreme values
What is a disadvantage of using the mean?
it does not take into account each participants individual scores
How to calculate the mode?
most frequently occurring score in a set of scores
what is the disadvantage of using the mean?
-could be more than one mode or no mode
-only suitable for summarising categories
Define measures of dispersion?
A way of summarising the data but instead indicates a spread of scores which deviate from the mean
How do you calculate the range?
subtracting the lowest score from the largest in a set of data
what is the checklist for using Binomial Sign Test?
-DV is nominal level data
-repeated measures design
-explores a difference between conditions
what is the checklist for using a Mann Whitney U Test?
-DV is ordinal or interval level data
-Independent measures design
-exploring a difference between conditions
what is the checklist for using a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test?
-DV is ordinal or interval level data
-repeated measures design
-explores a difference between conditions
what is the checklist for using a Chi Squared Test?
-DV is nominal
-independent measures design
-explores a difference between conditions
what is the checklist for using Spearman’s Rho Test?
-at least ordinal level data, interval also
-exploring a relationship between co-variables
-a correlational design
what are the 6 ethical guidelines?
-informed concent
-confidentiality
-debreif
-right to withdraw
-protection from harm
-deception
what is the pourpose for the abstract section to a report?
a breif overview of the article
what is the pourpos of an introducton to a report?
it presents the problem under investigation and reviwes previous research and literature on the topic to see what has already been found
what is the pourpose of a method of a report?
details how the research was conducted such as information about the sample, the design, the procedure, and the materials
what is the pourpose of the results/ findings in a repot?
shows the actual results of what has been found from the study
what is the pourpose of the discussion in a report?
the psychologiest writing the report interpret the resuts using the theory from the background, such as does it support or go agianst
what is the pourpose of the references in the report?
lists all the sources or articles used ensuring no work has been copiedw
what is the pourpose of the apendices in a report?
includes information that would clutter up the paper and provide the reader with unncecisary detail about the study
what is falsification?
manipulating the findings or changing them slightly so that they show what you want them to and support your argumants and theories
what is fabriation?
somethig has been made up such as finings froam a study usually to provide support for arguments or theories
what is the file draw phenominon?
the peer reviwe tends to favour positive results and so pieces of research where the null hypotheesis has been supported have been found to be a rejected or “filed in the drawer”- unrepresentive view of findings
what does it mean to preserve the status quo?
to reject knowlege that does not fit in with current knowlege
what is random sampling?
This is a sample in which every member of the target population has a chance of being selected
random sampling strengths?
-More lickely to have a representative sample
-best chance of an unbiased sample
weakness of random sampling?
-time consuming to create a list of people who can participate
What is snowball sampling?
researcher asks ppts who fits the target population to tell their friends about the study.
strength of snowball sampling?
it is possible to include groups of people who are difficult to accsess
weakness of snowball sampling?
researcher may struggle to find a ppts for this sampling to work
what is volunteer sampling?
individuals choose to take part in the study
strength of volunteer sampling?
-convenient
-ethical as leads to informed consent so ppts are unlikely to drop out
weakness of volunteer sampling?
-unrepresentative so less lickely to generalise
-lack population validity
what is opportunity sampling?
selecting people who are avalible at the time
strength of opportunity sampling?
-quick and convenient
weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
-very unrepresentative
-often biased by researchers who will lickely choose “helpfull people”
What is an unstructured interview?
No set questions and have a clearly defined topic meaning the interviewer can ask any question relating to the general topic.
What are the strengths of unstructured interviews?
Can obtain ecologically valid results as the participants feel as though they are having a general conversation and so are less likely to feel uncomfortable and show demand characteristics as well as more likely to provide honest answers
What are the weaknesses of an unstructured interview?
Interviews are not possible to replicate and so it is unlikely that each participant will be Interviewed in the same way and so results are unreliable.
what is a semi structured interview?
They have a clearly defined general topic of questions where some are set and can be followed up with further unset questions.
what is a strength of semi structured interviews?
the interview seems like a normal conversation and also there are preset questions so participants likely to feel comfortable and less likely to show demand characteristics.This allows the interviewer to gain insight into the response to ensure results of behaviour are valid
what are the weaknesses of semi structured interview?
If an interviewer isn’t trained they miss an opportunity to discover the real reason to behaviour or they may drift of topic to a general conversation which doesn’t provide relevant data. Time consuming
What is a structured interview?
Have a clearly defined general topic of investigation with set questions in a pre-determind order
Strength of structured interview.
More reliable as the way participants respond should be consistent ad the interview is replicable.
weakness of structured interview?
Very formal so participants may feel uncomfortable and give socially desirable answers. Interviewer cannot follow up on a participants response so data for this Interview may not be as valid.
what is a questionaire?
a set of questions about a topic under investigation that a ppts will answer
What are the strengths of a questionaire?
-very effective and convenient at collecting large amounts of data relitavely quickly
-usually produce quantitative data is closed questions are used which is easier to analyse and make comparisons as it is objective
-less chance of researcher bias
weaknesses of questionaires?
-ppts may not return the questionaire, low responce rate therefore sample maybe biased and unrepresentative
-ppts may interpret questions differently which may affect the validity of the results
-may give socially desireable answers
what is an open question?
allow ppts to provide as much or little detail to a question as possible.
-there are no predetermined answers
strengths of open questions?
-collect qualitative data therefore they provide insight into reasons for behaviour- more valid
-more realstic type of questions
weaknesses of open questions?
difficult to analyse and compare due to qualititaive data
-researcher bias may affect validity of results due to subjective interpretation
what is a closed question?
questions which allow ppts to select from options that are pre-determined and so produce quantitative data
strengths of closed questions?
-easy to analyse and compare responces as resluts are quantitative
weaknesses of closed questions?
-data has a narrow range as it does not provide insight into behvaviour
-ppts can only chose from a pre-determind answer- restricted responce
what is reliability?
This refers to the extent to which the results are consistent. E.g. a persons IQ should be similar if not the same when tested again.
How Can we Ensure Reliability?
The test-re-test method is when the same test is given to the participants on another occasion to check that scores are similar.h
what is internal reliablility?
is the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself
what is external reliability?
to the extent which a measure varies from one use to another
what is validity?
how accurate the findings are and if they are correct
what is internal validity?
This refers to whether the results are valid and can be linked to the manipulation of the IV. Results are internally valid if they have not been affected by confounding variables
what is external validity?
This refers to whether the results can be generalised beyond the experimental setting…
- other settings (ecological validity)
- other people (population validity)
- over time (historical validity)
what is face validiity?
type of internal validity which refers to the extent to which a test/study appears to measure what it intended to measure
what is construct validity?
type of internal validity and refers to the extent to which a test/study actually measures the construct it was designed to measure
what is concurrent validity?
a tye of internal validity that refers to the extent to which the findings from the test/study agree with previously validated tests/studies measuring the same construct
what is citerion validity?
a type of internal validity which refers to the extent to which a test/study can predict the preformance or behavioour of a measured construct in the future, based on the preformance in the study in the present
what is population validity?
a type of external validity which refers to the extent to which results from the sample relate to the population
what is ecological validity?
a type of external validiity which refers to the extent to which results from a study are reflective of what would be found in a natural enviroment
why are piolet studies used?
to improve the validity of findings from self-reports would be to conduct a pilot study to identify any problems and remove them from the study
what is inter-rater reliability?
two or more individuals have a high agreement on a score and therefore the measurements of behaviour is reliable
what are the Advantages of a Pilot Study
A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.
what are the Disadvantages of a Pilot Study
Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task - all performances are low. The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.
what are demand characteristics?
When a participant showcases particular behaviours due to knowing they are
being studied/observed, making the results unrealistic.
what is a type-1 error?
Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis which is true (FALSE POSITIVE)
what is a type-2 error?
Incorrectly accepting a false null hypothesis (FALSE NEGATIVE)
